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Welfare indices have been developed from two main sources: studies of suffering humans, and of research animals deliberately subjected to challenges known to affect emotional state. We briefly review the resulting indices here, and discuss how well they are understood for elephants, since objective welfare assessment should play a central role in evidence\u2010based elephant management. We cover behavioral and cognitive responses (approach\/avoidance; intention, redirected and displacement activities; vigilance\/startle; warning signals; cognitive biases, apathy and depression\u2010like changes; stereotypic behavior); physiological responses (sympathetic responses; corticosteroid output \u2013 often assayed non\u2010invasively via urine, feces or even hair; other aspects of HPA function, e.g. adrenal hypertrophy); and the potential negative effects of prolonged stress on reproduction (e.g. reduced gametogenesis; low libido; elevated still\u2010birth rates; poor maternal care) and health (e.g. poor wound\u2010healing; enhanced disease rates; shortened lifespans). The best validated, most used welfare indices for elephants are corticosteroid outputs and stereotypic behavior. Indices suggested as valid, partially validated, and\/or validated but not yet applied within zoos include: measures of preference\/avoidance; displacement movements; vocal\/postural signals of affective (emotional) state; startle\/vigilance; apathy; salivary and urinary epinephrine; female acyclity; infant mortality rates; skin\/foot infections; cardio\u2010vascular disease; and premature adult death. Potentially useful indices that have not yet attracted any validation work in elephants include: operant responding and place preference tests; intention and vacuum movements; fear\/stress pheromone release; cognitive biases; heart rate, pupil dilation and blood pressure; corticosteroid assay from hair, especially tail\u2010hairs (to access endocrine events up to a year ago); adrenal hypertrophy; male infertility; prolactinemia; and immunological changes. Zoo Biol 29:237\u2013255, 2010. \u00a9 2009 Wiley\u2010Liss, Inc.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/zoo.20256","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2009,6,9]],"date-time":"2009-06-09T17:30:00Z","timestamp":1244568600000},"page":"237-255","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":128,"title":["How should the psychological well\u2010being of zoo elephants be objectively investigated?"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"29","author":[{"given":"Georgia J.","family":"Mason","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jake S.","family":"Veasey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2007.07.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","volume-title":"Animals under stress. 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