{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T18:22:23Z","timestamp":1784830943845,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,18]],"date-time":"2021-03-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1616025600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Zoo Biology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Amphibian health problems of unknown cause limit the success of the growing number of captive breeding programs. Spindly leg syndrome (SLS) is one such disease, where affected individuals with underdeveloped limbs often require euthanization. We experimentally evaluated husbandry\u2010related factors of SLS in a captive population of the critically endangered frog,<jats:italic>Andinobates geminisae<\/jats:italic>. SLS has been linked to tadpole nutrition, vitamin B deficiency, water filtration methods, and water quality, but few of these have been experimentally tested. We tested the effects of water filtration method and vitamin supplementation (2017) and the effects of tadpole husbandry protocol intensity (2018) on time to metamorphosis and the occurrence of SLS. We found that vitamin supplementation and reconstituted reverse osmosis filtration of tadpole rearing water significantly reduced SLS prevalence and that reduced tadpole husbandry delayed time to metamorphosis. A fortuitous accident in 2018 resulted in a decrease in the phosphate content of rearing water, which afforded us an additional opportunity to assess the influence of phosphate on calcium sequestration. We found that tadpoles that had more time to sequester calcium for ossification during development had decreased the prevalence of SLS. Taken together, our results suggest that the qualities of the water used to rear tadpoles plays an important role in the development of SLS. Specifically, filtration method, vitamin supplementation, and calcium availability of tadpole rearing water may play important roles. Focused experiments are still needed, but our findings provide important information for amphibian captive rearing programs affected by high SLS prevalence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/zoo.21598","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,18]],"date-time":"2021-03-18T11:58:48Z","timestamp":1616068728000},"page":"330-341","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Observations on spindly leg syndrome in a captive population of<i>Andinobates geminisae<\/i>"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"40","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9893-8931","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kathleen","family":"Higgins","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences Simon Fraser University Burnaby British Columbia Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jorge","family":"Guerrel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Panam\u00e1 Republic of Panama"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elliot","family":"Lassiter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Panam\u00e1 Republic of Panama"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arne","family":"Mooers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences Simon Fraser University Burnaby British Columbia Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wendy J.","family":"Palen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences Simon Fraser University Burnaby British Columbia Canada"},{"name":"Earth to Ocean Research Group, Simon Fraser University British Columbia Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roberto","family":"Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Panam\u00e1 Republic of Panama"},{"name":"Sistema Nacional de Investigaci\u00f3n, SENACYT Panam\u00e1 Republic of Panama"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_12_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.88.1.357"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1739.1996.10030719.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.11646\/zootaxa.3866.3.2"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_6_1","unstructured":"Biega A.(2017).Evaluating the Role of Zoos and Ex Situ Conservation in Global Amphibian Recovery.\u00a0Simon Fraser University. Masters of Science thesis."},{"key":"e_1_2_12_7_1","first-page":"636","article-title":"Amphibians: Suitable candidates for breeding\u2010release programmes","volume":"4","author":"Bloxam Q. M. C.","year":"1995","journal-title":"Review of Industrial Organization"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(02)00205-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_9_1","first-page":"445","article-title":"The relationship between spindly leg syndrome incidence and water composition, overfeeding, and diet in newly metamorphosed harlequin frogs (Atelopus spp.)","volume":"11","author":"Camperio Ciani J. F.","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLOS One"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665114000044"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5818\/1529-9651-25.3.72"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3016.2010.01160.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2015.01.048"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu7053322"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.249"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/zoo.21180"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_2_12_17_1","first-page":"183","article-title":"A simplified table for staging anuran embryos larvae with notes on identification","volume":"16","author":"Gosner K. 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Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium of Pathology of Reptiles and Amphibians in Alphen Aan Den Rijn The Netherlands 271\u2013276."},{"key":"e_1_2_12_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cobi.12612"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/CCLM.2007.362"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1194442"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3544127"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01985629"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_28_1","first-page":"e.T77318469A877","article-title":"Andinobates geminisae","volume":"2019","author":"IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group","year":"2019","journal-title":"The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2281082"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0235285"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.5620180519"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_32_1","first-page":"145","article-title":"Spindly leg syndrome in frogs: Present knowledge and future directions to elucidate its causes","volume":"11","author":"Marlett J.","year":"1988","journal-title":"Proceedings of the International Herpetological Symposium: Captive Propagation and Husbandry"},{"issue":"11","key":"e_1_2_12_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-7345.1980.tb00139.x","article-title":"Calcium and pH requirements in the culture of Bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) larvae","volume":"453","author":"Marshall G. 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