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The quadrat\u2010variance method compares variances of map quadrats crossed by language\u2010family boundaries to variances of quadrats that are not crossed. The rate\u2010of\u2010change method examines the directional derivative of surfaces of the variables perpendicular to a language\u2010family boundary and compares these derivatives to the same quantities obtained by randomly placing the language boundaries on the map of Europe. The difference method tests whether these variables differ more across language\u2010family boundaries than across randomly placed boundaries. These special data\u2010analytic techniques had to be developed to avoid the problem of spatial autocorrelation of both language and biological data. All three methods indicate increased genetic change at language\u2010family boundaries. Clearer and more pronounced results are obtained by the first two methods than by the difference method. Thirteen language\u2010family boundaries show significant gene frequency change by at least one of the methods. Changes are more marked in gene frequencies than in cranial variables. Different allele frequencies mark the increased change at different language boundaries. A model, based on the known history of each language\u2010family boundary, was constructed to predict whether given boundaries should exhibit increased genetic change. The model is in good agreement with the observed results.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330760308","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2006,2,4]],"date-time":"2006-02-04T09:52:34Z","timestamp":1139046754000},"page":"337-361","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Genetic changes across language boundaries in Europe"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"76","author":[{"given":"Robert R.","family":"Sokal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Neal L.","family":"Oden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Barbara A.","family":"Thomson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2005,4,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2412279"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","unstructured":"Barbujani G Sokal RR andOden NL(1988)A technique for finding regions of highest gene frequency change. 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B."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","first-page":"866","article-title":"Slavic languages","volume":"16","author":"Ivanov VV","year":"1976","journal-title":"Chicago: The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, Macropaedia"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-3084-4_7"},{"volume-title":"Mining Geostatistics","year":"1978","author":"Journel AG","key":"e_1_2_1_20_1"},{"volume-title":"Lehrbuch der Anthropologie","year":"1957","author":"Martin R","key":"e_1_2_1_21_1"},{"volume-title":"The Linguistic Atlas of Scotland. Hamden","year":"1975","author":"Mather JY","key":"e_1_2_1_22_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1538-4632.1980.tb00031.x"},{"volume-title":"Langues Indo\u2010Europ\u00e9ennes d'Europe (Carte). Les Langues du Monde","year":"1952","author":"Meillet A","key":"e_1_2_1_24_1"},{"volume-title":"Langues Ouraliennes (Carte). 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Nr. 147 Wien: Amt der nieder\u00f6sterreichischen Landesregierung."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2530614"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.114.2961.315"}],"container-title":["American Journal of Physical Anthropology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1002%2Fajpa.1330760308","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/ajpa.1330760308","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,7]],"date-time":"2025-01-07T16:14:05Z","timestamp":1736266445000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/ajpa.1330760308"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1988,7]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1988,7]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1002\/ajpa.1330760308"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ajpa.1330760308","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0002-9483","1096-8644"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"0002-9483"},{"type":"electronic","value":"1096-8644"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[1988,7]]}}}