{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,30]],"date-time":"2025-12-30T23:36:10Z","timestamp":1767137770377,"version":"build-2238731810"},"publisher-location":"Cham","reference-count":21,"publisher":"Springer Nature Switzerland","isbn-type":[{"value":"9783031712098","type":"print"},{"value":"9783031712104","type":"electronic"}],"license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,1]],"date-time":"2024-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704067200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,31]],"date-time":"2024-08-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1725062400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":243,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>False claims about vaccines can find large audiences online, leading to vaccine hesitancy. The most influential content on social media is often visual, but studies about misinformation largely focus on text instead of images. This study uses new image analysis capabilities that Facebook and Instagram have made available to understand the spread of visual anti-vaccination memes on these platforms. We identified 200 influential memes that contain scepticism or hesitancy towards vaccines and the 15,000 public Facebook accounts on which the memes have been shared. We describe the memes\u2019 spread on a large scale by identifying communities of accounts and describing the diffusion pathways of memes between the communities. We develop a novel method of testing whether a meme has spread from one community of accounts to another that works on sequential time series alone. We identify 16 distinct communities of Facebook accounts and categories them based on thematic and regional focus. Anti-vaccination memes originate predominantly from North American Facebook accounts. These accounts often focus on opposing COVID-19 policies or promoting conspiracy theories about elites. Memes from these communities also spread internationally, particularly to Europe, demonstrating their influence beyond North America. The analysis demonstrates that memes receive the most engagement within their initial community. However, their overall reach depends on their ability to spread to other communities. This suggests that the ability of memes to find large audiences is based on their capacity to spread beyond their original contexts and to be used by groups with potentially different agendas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-71210-4_6","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,29]],"date-time":"2024-08-29T20:01:55Z","timestamp":1724961715000},"page":"86-100","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Spread of Anti-vaccination Memes on Facebook"],"prefix":"10.1007","author":[{"given":"Aleksi","family":"Knuutila","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"George","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jonathan","family":"Bright","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kate","family":"Joynes-Burgess","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Philip","family":"Howard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"6_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1111\/1475-6765.12401","volume":"60","author":"D Bol","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bol, D., Giani, M., Blais, A., Loewen, P.J.: The effect of COVID-19 lockdowns on political support: some good news for democracy? Eur. J. Polit. Res. 60, 497\u2013505 (2021). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1475-6765.12401","journal-title":"Eur. J. Polit. Res."},{"key":"6_CR2","unstructured":"CrowdTangle Team. CrowdTangle. Facebook, Menlo Park, California, United States. List ID: 1432547 (2021)"},{"key":"6_CR3","unstructured":"CrowdTangle: What data is CrowdTangle tracking? (2021). http:\/\/help.crowdtangle.com\/en\/articles\/1140930-what-data-is-crowdtangle-tracking"},{"key":"6_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"De Zeeuw, D., Hagen, S., Peeters, S., Jokubauskaite, E.: Tracing normiefication. First Monday 25 (2020). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5210\/fm.v25i11.10643","DOI":"10.5210\/fm.v25i11.10643"},{"key":"6_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1109\/32.221135","volume":"19","author":"ER Gansner","year":"1993","unstructured":"Gansner, E.R., Koutsofios, E., North, S.C., Vo, K.-P.: A technique for drawing directed graphs. IEEE Trans. Softw. Eng. 19, 214\u2013230 (1993). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/32.221135","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Softw. Eng."},{"key":"6_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2194","DOI":"10.1093\/tbm\/ibab128","volume":"11","author":"R Garett","year":"2021","unstructured":"Garett, R., Young, S.D.: Online misinformation and vaccine hesitancy. Transl. Behav. Med. 11, 2194\u20132199 (2021). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/tbm\/ibab128","journal-title":"Transl. Behav. Med."},{"key":"6_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9165","DOI":"10.3390\/su14159165","volume":"14","author":"M Gutierrez-Bustamante","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gutierrez-Bustamante, M., Espinosa-Leal, L.: Natural language processing methods for scoring sustainability reports\u2014a study of Nordic listed companies. Sustainability 14, 9165 (2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su14159165","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"6_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Holt, K.: Alternative media and the notion of anti-systemness: towards an analytical framework. Media Commun. 49\u201357 (2018). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17645\/mac.v6i4.1467","DOI":"10.17645\/mac.v6i4.1467"},{"key":"6_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2281-1","volume":"582","author":"NF Johnson","year":"2020","unstructured":"Johnson, N.F., et al.: The online competition between pro- and anti-vaccination views. Nature 582, 230\u2013233 (2020). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41586-020-2281-1","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"6_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1609\/icaps.v32i1.19805","volume":"32","author":"S Lemons","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lemons, S., Linares L\u00f3pez, C., Holte, R.C., Ruml, W.: Beam search: faster and monotonic. ICAPS 32, 222\u2013230 (2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1609\/icaps.v32i1.19805","journal-title":"ICAPS"},{"key":"6_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Marchal, N., Neudert, L.-M., Kollanyi, B., Howard, P.N.: Investigating visual content shared over Twitter during the 2019 EU parliamentary election campaign. Media Commun. 9, 158\u2013170 (2021). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17645\/mac.v9i1.3421","DOI":"10.17645\/mac.v9i1.3421"},{"key":"6_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Milani, E., Weitkamp, E., Webb, P.: The visual vaccine debate on Twitter: a social network analysis. Media Commun. 8, 364\u2013375 (2020). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17645\/mac.v8i2.2847","DOI":"10.17645\/mac.v8i2.2847"},{"key":"6_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1007\/s00357-014-9161-z","volume":"31","author":"F Murtagh","year":"2014","unstructured":"Murtagh, F., Legendre, P.: Ward\u2019s hierarchical agglomerative clustering method: which algorithms implement Ward\u2019s criterion? J. Classif. 31, 274\u2013295 (2014). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00357-014-9161-z","journal-title":"J. Classif."},{"key":"6_CR14","unstructured":"Newman, M.: Networks: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, Oxford"},{"key":"6_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7332","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0610245104","volume":"104","author":"J-P Onnela","year":"2007","unstructured":"Onnela, J.-P., et al.: Structure and tie strengths in mobile communication networks. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 104, 7332\u20137336 (2007). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.0610245104","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"6_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shifman, L.: Memes in Digital Culture. MIT Press (2013)","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/9429.001.0001"},{"key":"6_CR17","unstructured":"Sivakumar, V., Gordo, A., Paluri, M.: Rosetta: understanding text in images and videos with machine learning (2018). https:\/\/engineering.fb.com\/2018\/09\/11\/ai-research\/rosetta-understanding-text-in-images-and-videos-with-machine-learning\/"},{"key":"6_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Thissen, D., Steinberg, L., Kuang, D.: Quick and easy implementation of the Benjamini-Hochberg procedure for controlling the false positive rate in multiple comparisons. J. Educ. Behav. Statist. 27, 77\u201383 (2002). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3102\/10769986027001077","DOI":"10.3102\/10769986027001077"},{"key":"6_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2522","DOI":"10.1038\/srep02522","volume":"3","author":"L Weng","year":"2013","unstructured":"Weng, L., Menczer, F., Ahn, Y.-Y.: Virality prediction and community structure in social networks. Sci. Rep. 3, 2522 (2013). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/srep02522","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"6_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1886","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444814535194","volume":"17","author":"BE Wiggins","year":"2015","unstructured":"Wiggins, B.E., Bowers, G.B.: Memes as genre: a structurational analysis of the memescape. New Media Soc. 17, 1886\u20131906 (2015). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1461444814535194","journal-title":"New Media Soc."},{"key":"6_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-1809.1972.tb00293.x","volume":"21","author":"B Woolf","year":"1957","unstructured":"Woolf, B.: The log likelihood ratio test (the G-test). Ann. Hum. Genet. 21, 397\u2013409 (1957). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1469-1809.1972.tb00293.x","journal-title":"Ann. Hum. Genet."}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-71210-4_9","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,29]],"date-time":"2025-07-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753747200000}}],"container-title":["Lecture Notes in Computer Science","Disinformation in Open Online Media"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/978-3-031-71210-4_6","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,28]],"date-time":"2025-07-28T17:22:15Z","timestamp":1753723335000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/978-3-031-71210-4_6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024]]},"ISBN":["9783031712098","9783031712104"],"references-count":21,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-031-71210-4_6","relation":{},"ISSN":["0302-9743","1611-3349"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0302-9743","type":"print"},{"value":"1611-3349","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024]]},"assertion":[{"value":"31 August 2024","order":1,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ChapterHistory","label":"Chapter History"}},{"value":"29 July 2025","order":2,"name":"change_date","label":"Change Date","group":{"name":"ChapterHistory","label":"Chapter History"}},{"value":"Correction","order":3,"name":"change_type","label":"Change Type","group":{"name":"ChapterHistory","label":"Chapter History"}},{"value":"A correction has been published.","order":4,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ChapterHistory","label":"Chapter History"}},{"value":"Kate Joynes-Burgess is funded by a Wellcome Trust PhD Studentship in the Humanities and Social Sciences.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Notes on Funding"}},{"value":"MISDOOM","order":1,"name":"conference_acronym","label":"Conference Acronym","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"Multidisciplinary International Symposium on Disinformation in Open Online Media","order":2,"name":"conference_name","label":"Conference Name","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"M\u00fcnster","order":3,"name":"conference_city","label":"Conference City","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"Germany","order":4,"name":"conference_country","label":"Conference Country","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"2024","order":5,"name":"conference_year","label":"Conference Year","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"2 September 2024","order":7,"name":"conference_start_date","label":"Conference Start Date","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"4 September 2024","order":8,"name":"conference_end_date","label":"Conference End Date","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"6","order":9,"name":"conference_number","label":"Conference Number","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"misdoom2024","order":10,"name":"conference_id","label":"Conference ID","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"https:\/\/www.misdoom2024.uni-muenster.de\/","order":11,"name":"conference_url","label":"Conference URL","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}}]}}