{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T07:47:05Z","timestamp":1782546425655,"version":"3.54.5"},"publisher-location":"Cham","reference-count":33,"publisher":"Springer Nature Switzerland","isbn-type":[{"value":"9783032297594","type":"print"},{"value":"9783032297600","type":"electronic"}],"license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,28]],"date-time":"2026-06-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782604800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,28]],"date-time":"2026-06-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782604800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2027]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-032-29760-0_53","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T07:09:06Z","timestamp":1782544146000},"page":"521-535","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Should AI Ask First? Investigating the\u00a0Effects of\u00a0Proactive vs Reactive AI Mentoring in\u00a0Self-directed Learning"],"prefix":"10.1007","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-4149-7266","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khaoula","family":"Otmani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-8941-3893","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Bodonhelyi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1679-4979","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Babette","family":"B\u00fchler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3146-4484","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Enkelejda","family":"Kasneci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"53_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Adamczyk, P.D., Bailey, B.P.: If not now, when? The effects of interruption at different moments within task execution. In: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI 2004, pp. 271\u2013278. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA (2004). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/985692.985727","DOI":"10.1145\/985692.985727"},{"issue":"1","key":"53_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-015-0089-1","volume":"26","author":"V Aleven","year":"2016","unstructured":"Aleven, V., Roll, I., McLaren, B.M., Koedinger, K.R.: Help helps, but only so much: research on help seeking with intelligent tutoring systems. Int. J. Artif. Intell. Educ. 26(1), 205\u2013223 (2016). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40593-015-0089-1","journal-title":"Int. J. Artif. Intell. Educ."},{"issue":"3","key":"53_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.3102\/00346543073003277","volume":"73","author":"V Aleven","year":"2003","unstructured":"Aleven, V., Stahl, E., Schworm, S., Fischer, F., Wallace, R.: Help seeking and help design in interactive learning environments. Rev. Educ. Res. 73(3), 277\u2013320 (2003). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3102\/00346543073003277","journal-title":"Rev. Educ. Res."},{"key":"53_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bloom, B.S.: The 2 sigma problem: the search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educ. Res. 13(6), 4\u201316 (1984). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3102\/0013189X013006004","DOI":"10.3102\/0013189X013006004"},{"key":"53_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bodonhelyi, A., Thaqi, E., \u00d6zdel, S., Bozkir, E., Kasneci, E.: From passive watching to active learning: empowering proactive participation in digital classrooms with AI video assistant. In: Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI 2025 (2025). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3706598.3713513","DOI":"10.1145\/3706598.3713513"},{"key":"53_CR6","series-title":"Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-39112-5_120","volume-title":"Artificial Intelligence in Education","author":"F Bouchet","year":"2013","unstructured":"Bouchet, F., Harley, J.M., Azevedo, R.: Impact of different pedagogical agents\u2019 adaptive self-regulated prompting strategies on learning with MetaTutor. In: Lane, H.C., Yacef, K., Mostow, J., Pavlik, P. (eds.) AIED 2013. LNCS (LNAI), vol. 7926, pp. 815\u2013819. Springer, Heidelberg (2013). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-642-39112-5_120"},{"key":"53_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u00fchler, B., et al.: Detecting aware and unaware mind wandering during lecture viewing: a multimodal machine learning approach using eye tracking, facial videos and physiological data. In: Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction, pp. 244\u2013253 (2024)","DOI":"10.1145\/3678957.3685710"},{"key":"53_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u00fchler, B., et al.: Temporal dynamics of meta-awareness of mind wandering during lecture viewing: implications for learning and automated assessment using machine learning. J. Educ. Psychol. (2024)","DOI":"10.1037\/edu0000903"},{"issue":"45","key":"53_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38278","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v40i45.41167","volume":"40","author":"B B\u00fchler","year":"2026","unstructured":"B\u00fchler, B., Bueno, I., Kasneci, E.: Democratizing writing support with AI: insights from one year of real-world interactions with an open-access writing feedback tool. Proc. AAAI Conf. Artif. Intell. 40(45), 38278\u201338286 (2026). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1609\/aaai.v40i45.41167","journal-title":"Proc. AAAI Conf. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"53_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chen, V., Zhu, A., Zhao, S., Mozannar, H., Sontag, D., Talwalkar, A.: Need help? Designing proactive AI assistants for programming (2024). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2410.04596","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2410.04596"},{"key":"53_CR11","unstructured":"Czerwinski, M., Cutrell, E., Horvitz, E.: Instant messaging: effects of relevance and timing. In: People and Computers XIV: Proceedings of HCI, vol. 2, pp. 71\u201376 (2000)"},{"key":"53_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Darvishi, A., Khosravi, H., Sadiq, S., Ga\u0161evi\u0107, D., Siemens, G.: Impact of AI assistance on student agency. Comput. Educ. 210, 1\u201318 (2024). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2023.104967","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2023.104967"},{"key":"53_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12599-024-00918-y","author":"C Diebel","year":"2025","unstructured":"Diebel, C., Goutier, M., Adam, M., Benlian, A.: When AI-based agents are proactive: implications for competence and system satisfaction in human\u2013AI collaboration. Bus. Inf. Syst. Eng. (2025). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12599-024-00918-y","journal-title":"Bus. Inf. Syst. Eng."},{"key":"53_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"D\u2019mello, S., Graesser, A.: AutoTutor and affective AutoTutor: learning by talking with cognitively and emotionally intelligent computers that talk back. ACM Trans. Interact. Intell. Syst. 2(4) (2013). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2395123.2395128","DOI":"10.1145\/2395123.2395128"},{"key":"53_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"D\u2019Mello, S., Lehman, B., Pekrun, R., Graesser, A.: Confusion can be beneficial for learning. Learn. Instr. 29, 153\u2013170 (2014). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2012.05.003","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2012.05.003"},{"key":"53_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Guo, P.J., Kim, J., Rubin, R.: How video production affects student engagement: an empirical study of MOOC videos. In: Proceedings of the First ACM Conference on Learning @ Scale Conference, L@S 2014, pp. 41\u201350. Association for Computing Machinery (2014). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2556325.2566239","DOI":"10.1145\/2556325.2566239"},{"key":"53_CR17","unstructured":"Gupta, A., MacLellan, C.: Intelligent tutors beyond K-12: an observational study of adult learner engagement and academic impact (2025). https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2502.16613"},{"issue":"1","key":"53_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1119\/1.18809","volume":"66","author":"RR Hake","year":"1998","unstructured":"Hake, R.R.: Interactive-engagement versus traditional methods: a six-thousand-student survey of mechanics test data for introductory physics courses. Am. J. Phys. 66(1), 64\u201374 (1998). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1119\/1.18809","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys."},{"issue":"1","key":"53_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1007\/s44163-025-00312-x","volume":"5","author":"G Hanshaw","year":"2025","unstructured":"Hanshaw, G., Sullivan, C.: Exploring barriers to AI course assistant adoption: a mixed-methods study on student non-utilization. Discover Artif. Intell. 5(1), 178 (2025). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44163-025-00312-x","journal-title":"Discover Artif. Intell."},{"key":"53_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lcsi.2015.12.001","volume":"9","author":"S Hennessy","year":"2016","unstructured":"Hennessy, S., et al.: Developing a coding scheme for analysing classroom dialogue across educational contexts. Learn. Cult. Soc. Interact. 9, 16\u201344 (2016). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.lcsi.2015.12.001","journal-title":"Learn. Cult. Soc. Interact."},{"key":"53_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Iqbal, S.T., Bailey, B.P.: Leveraging characteristics of task structure to predict the cost of interruption. In: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI 2006, pp. 741\u2013750. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA (2006). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/1124772.1124882","DOI":"10.1145\/1124772.1124882"},{"key":"53_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lindif.2023.102274","volume":"103","author":"E Kasneci","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kasneci, E., et al.: ChatGPT for good? On opportunities and challenges of large language models for education. Learn. Individ. Differ. 103, 102274 (2023)","journal-title":"Learn. Individ. Differ."},{"issue":"1","key":"53_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1186\/s40537-025-01333-0","volume":"12","author":"K Kong","year":"2025","unstructured":"Kong, K., Isleem, H.F., Aluvalu, R., Tejani, G.G., Metwally, A.S.M.: Real-time cognitive and emotional state tracking in intelligent tutoring systems for enhanced learning outcomes. J. Big Data 12(1), 266 (2025). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40537-025-01333-0","journal-title":"J. Big Data"},{"key":"53_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Merkt, M., Hoppe, A., Bruns, G., Ewerth, R., Huff, M.: Pushing the button: why do learners pause online videos? Comput. Educ. 176, 104355 (2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2021.104355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2021.104355"},{"key":"53_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Pu, K., et al.: Assistance or disruption? Exploring and evaluating the design and trade-offs of proactive AI programming support. In: Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI 2025, pp. 1\u201321. Association for Computing Machinery (2025). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3706598.3713357","DOI":"10.1145\/3706598.3713357"},{"issue":"1","key":"53_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239-018-0100-7","volume":"15","author":"A Qayyum","year":"2018","unstructured":"Qayyum, A.: Student help-seeking attitudes and behaviors in a digital era. Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ. 15(1), 17 (2018). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s41239-018-0100-7","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ."},{"issue":"2","key":"53_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2010.07.004","volume":"21","author":"I Roll","year":"2011","unstructured":"Roll, I., Aleven, V., McLaren, B.M., Koedinger, K.R.: Improving students\u2019 help-seeking skills using metacognitive feedback in an intelligent tutoring system. Learn. Instr. 21(2), 267\u2013280 (2011). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2010.07.004","journal-title":"Learn. Instr."},{"key":"53_CR28","series-title":"Lecture Notes in Computer Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1007\/11774303_36","volume-title":"Intelligent Tutoring Systems","author":"I Roll","year":"2006","unstructured":"Roll, I., Aleven, V., McLaren, B.M., Ryu, E., Baker, R.S.J., Koedinger, K.R.: The help tutor: does metacognitive feedback improve students\u2019 help-seeking actions, skills and learning? In: Ikeda, M., Ashley, K.D., Chan, T.-W. (eds.) ITS 2006. LNCS, vol. 4053, pp. 360\u2013369. Springer, Heidelberg (2006). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/11774303_36"},{"key":"53_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Schwonke, R., Ertelt, A., Otieno, C., Renkl, A., Aleven, V., Salden, R.J.C.M.: Metacognitive support promotes an effective use of instructional resources in intelligent tutoring. Learn. Instr. 23, 136\u2013150 (2013). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2012.08.003","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2012.08.003"},{"key":"53_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Se\u00dfler, K., Kepir, O., Kasneci, E.: Enhancing student motivation through LLM-powered learning environments: a comparative study. In: European Conference on Technology Enhanced Learning, pp. 156\u2013162. Springer (2024)","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-72312-4_21"},{"key":"53_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Thomas, D.R., et al.: Improving student learning with hybrid human-AI tutoring: a three-study quasi-experimental investigation. In: Proceedings of the 14th Learning Analytics and Knowledge Conference, LAK 2024, pp. 404\u2013415. ACM (2024). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3636555.3636896","DOI":"10.1145\/3636555.3636896"},{"issue":"3","key":"53_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.3233\/IRG-2006-16(3)02","volume":"16","author":"K Vanlehn","year":"2006","unstructured":"Vanlehn, K.: The behavior of tutoring systems. Int. J. Artif. Intell. Ed. 16(3), 227\u2013265 (2006)","journal-title":"Int. J. Artif. Intell. Ed."},{"key":"53_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Xiao, X., Wang, J.: Context and cognitive state triggered interventions for mobile MOOC learning. In: Proceedings of the 18th ACM International Conference on Multimodal Interaction, ICMI 2016, pp. 378\u2013385. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA (2016). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2993148.2993177","DOI":"10.1145\/2993148.2993177"}],"container-title":["Lecture Notes in Computer Science","Artificial Intelligence in Education"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/978-3-032-29760-0_53","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T07:09:11Z","timestamp":1782544151000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/978-3-032-29760-0_53"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,28]]},"ISBN":["9783032297594","9783032297600"],"references-count":33,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-032-29760-0_53","relation":{},"ISSN":["0302-9743","1611-3349"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0302-9743","type":"print"},{"value":"1611-3349","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,28]]},"assertion":[{"value":"28 June 2026","order":1,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ChapterHistory","label":"Chapter History"}},{"value":"No funds, grants, or other support were received. The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Disclosure of Interests"}},{"value":"This study was reviewed and approved by the ethics committee at TUM (approval no. 2025-151-NM-BA). All participants provided informed consent prior to participation and were compensated in accordance with the study protocol.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics Statement"}},{"value":"AIED","order":1,"name":"conference_acronym","label":"Conference Acronym","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education","order":2,"name":"conference_name","label":"Conference Name","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"Seoul","order":3,"name":"conference_city","label":"Conference City","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"Korea (Republic of)","order":4,"name":"conference_country","label":"Conference Country","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"2026","order":5,"name":"conference_year","label":"Conference Year","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"29 June 2026","order":7,"name":"conference_start_date","label":"Conference Start Date","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"3 July 2026","order":8,"name":"conference_end_date","label":"Conference End Date","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"27","order":9,"name":"conference_number","label":"Conference Number","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"aied2026","order":10,"name":"conference_id","label":"Conference ID","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}},{"value":"https:\/\/www.aied-conference.org\/2026","order":11,"name":"conference_url","label":"Conference URL","group":{"name":"ConferenceInfo","label":"Conference Information"}}]}}