{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,9]],"date-time":"2026-06-09T16:12:52Z","timestamp":1781021572910,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[1993,10,1]],"date-time":"1993-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":749433600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/www.springer.com\/tdm"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Mach Learn"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1993,10]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/bf00993103","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2005,1,9]],"date-time":"2005-01-09T16:36:00Z","timestamp":1105288560000},"page":"71-101","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":383,"title":["Extracting refined rules from knowledge-based neural networks"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Geoffrey G.","family":"Towell","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jude W.","family":"Shavlik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","reference":[{"key":"CR1","first-page":"475","volume-title":"Refinement of approximate reasoning-based controllers by reinforcement learaning","author":"H.R. Berenji","year":"1991","unstructured":"Berenji, H.R. (1991). Refinement of approximate reasoning-based controllers by reinforcement learaning.Proceedings of the Eighth International Machine Learning Workshop (pp. 475?479). Evanston, IL: Morgan Kaufmann."},{"key":"CR2","first-page":"579","volume-title":"Extraction of semantic features and logical rules from a multilayer neural network","author":"L. Bochereau","year":"1990","unstructured":"Bochereau, L., & Bourgine, P. (1990). Extraction of semantic features and logical rules from a multilayer neural network.International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (Vol. 2) (pp. 579?582). Washington, D.C.: Erlbaum."},{"key":"CR3","volume-title":"A study of thinking","author":"J.S. Bruner","year":"1956","unstructured":"Bruner, J.S., Goodnow, J.J., & Austin, G.A. (1956).A study of thinking. New York: Wiley."},{"key":"CR4","first-page":"399","volume-title":"Learning relations from noisy examples: An empirical comparison of LINUS and FOIL","author":"S. Dzeroski","year":"1991","unstructured":"Dzeroski, S., & Lavrac, N. (1991). Learning relations from noisy examples: An empirical comparison of LINUS and FOIL.Proceedings of the Eighth International Machine Learning Workshop (pp. 399?402). Evanston, IL: Morgan Kaufmann."},{"key":"CR5","first-page":"524","volume-title":"The cascade-correlation learning architecture","author":"S.E. Fahlman","year":"1989","unstructured":"Fahlman, S.E., & Lebiere, C. (1989). The cascade-correlation learning architecture.Advances in neural information processing systems (Vol. 2) (pp. 524?532). Denver, CO: Morgan Kaufmann."},{"key":"CR6","first-page":"788","volume-title":"An empirical comparison of ID3 and backpropagation","author":"D.H. Fisher","year":"1989","unstructured":"Fisher, D.H., & McKusick, K.B. (1989). An empirical comparison of ID3 and backpropagation.Proceedings of the Eleventh International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (pp. 788?793). Detroit, MI: Morgan Kaufmann."},{"key":"CR7","first-page":"590","volume-title":"Rule learning by searching on adapted nets","author":"L.M. Fu","year":"1991","unstructured":"Fu, L.M. (1991). Rule learning by searching on adapted nets.Proceedings of the Ninth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (pp. 590?595). Anaheim, CA: AAAI Press."},{"key":"CR8","first-page":"303","volume-title":"On the complexity of teaching","author":"S.A. Goldman","year":"1991","unstructured":"Goldman, S.A., & Kearns, M.J. (1991). On the complexity of teaching.Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Workshop on Computational Learning Theory (pp. 303?314). Santa Cruz, CA: Morgan Kaufmann."},{"key":"CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2343","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/15.5.2343","volume":"15","author":"C.B. Harley","year":"1987","unstructured":"Harley, C.B., & Reynolds, R.P. (1987). Analysis ofE. coli promoter sequences.Nucleic Acids Research, 15, 2343?2361.","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Research"},{"key":"CR10","volume-title":"Clustering algorithms","author":"J.A. Hartigan","year":"1975","unstructured":"Hartigan, J.A. (1975).Clustering algorithms. New York: Wiley."},{"key":"CR11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2237","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/11.8.2237","volume":"11","author":"D.K. Hawley","year":"1983","unstructured":"Hawley, D.K., & McClure, W.R. (1983). Compilation and analysis of escherichia coli promotor DNA sequences.Nucleic Acids Research, 11, 2237?2255.","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Research"},{"key":"CR12","first-page":"578","volume-title":"Advances in neural information processing systems (Vol. 3)","author":"Y. Hayashi","year":"1990","unstructured":"Hayashi, Y. (1990). A neural expert system with automated extraction of fuzzy if-then rules.Advances in neural information processing systems (Vol. 3) (pp. 578?584). Denver, CO: Morgan Kaufmann."},{"key":"CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/0004-3702(89)90049-0","volume":"40","author":"G.E. Hinton","year":"1989","unstructured":"Hinton, G.E. (1989). Connectionist learning procedures.Artificial Intelligence, 40, 185?234.","journal-title":"Artificial Intelligence"},{"key":"CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/0885-064X(88)90019-2","volume":"4","author":"S. Judd","year":"1988","unstructured":"Judd, S. (1988). On the complexity of loading shallow neural networks.Journal of Complexity, 4, 177?192.","journal-title":"Journal of Complexity"},{"key":"CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"886","DOI":"10.1038\/326886a0","volume":"326","author":"G.B. Koudelka","year":"1987","unstructured":"Koudelka, G.B., Harrison, S.C., & Ptashne, M. (1987). Effect of non-contacted bases on the affinity of 434 operator for 434 repressor and Cro.Nature, 326, 886?888.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"CR16","first-page":"598","volume-title":"Advances in neural information processing systems (Vol. 2)","author":"Y. Cun Le","year":"1989","unstructured":"Le Cun, Y., Denker, J.S., & Solla, S.A. (1989). Optimal brain damage.Advances in neural information processing systems (Vol. 2) (pp. 598?605). Denver, CO: Morgan Kaufmann."},{"key":"CR17","unstructured":"Masuoka, R., Watanabe, N., Kawamura, A., Owada, Y., & Asakawa, K. (1990). Neurofuzzy system?fuzzy inference using a structured neural network.Proceedings of the International Conference on Fuzzy Logic & Neural Networks (pp. 173?177). Iizuka, Japan."},{"key":"CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/0004-3702(82)90021-2","volume":"19","author":"J. McDermott","year":"1982","unstructured":"McDermott, J. (1982). R1: A rule-based configurer of computer systems.Artificial Intelligence, 19, 21?32.","journal-title":"Artificial Intelligence"},{"key":"CR19","volume-title":"The connectionist scientist game: Rule extraction and refinement in a neural network","author":"C. McMillan","year":"1991","unstructured":"McMillan, C., Mozer, M.C., & Smolensky, P. (1991). The connectionist scientist game: Rule extraction and refinement in a neural network.Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Chicago, IL: Erlbaum."},{"key":"CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1037\/h0043158","volume":"63","author":"G.A. Miller","year":"1956","unstructured":"Miller, G.A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.Psychological Review, 63, 81?97.","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"CR21","first-page":"107","volume-title":"Advances in neural information processing systems (Vol. 1)","author":"M.C. Mozer","year":"1988","unstructured":"Mozer, M.C., & Smolensky, P. (1988). Skeletonization: A technique for trimming the fat from a network via relevance assessment.Advances in neural information processing systems (Vol. 1) (pp. 107?115). Denver, CO: Morgan Kaufmann."},{"key":"CR22","first-page":"183","volume-title":"ID2-of-3: Constructive induction of M-of-N concepts for discriminators in decision trees","author":"P.M. Murphy","year":"1991","unstructured":"Murphy, P.M., & Pazzani, M.J. (1991). ID2-of-3: Constructive induction of M-of-N concepts for discriminators in decision trees.Proceedings of the Eighth International Machine Learning Workshop (pp. 183?187). Evanston, IL: Morgan Kaufmann."},{"key":"CR23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1037\/h0042549","volume":"64","author":"U. Nessier","year":"1962","unstructured":"Nessier, U., & Weene, P. (1962). Hierarchies in concept attainment.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64, 640?645.","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology"},{"key":"CR24","first-page":"530","volume-title":"Advances in neural information processing systems (Vol. 3)","author":"M.O. Noordewier","year":"1991","unstructured":"Noordewier, M.O., Towell, G.G., & Shavlik, J.W. (1991). Training knowledge-based neural networks to recognize genes in DNA sequences.Advances in neural information processing systems (Vol. 3) (pp. 530?536). Denver, CO: Morgan Kaufmann."},{"key":"CR25","first-page":"993","volume-title":"Advances in neural information processing systems (Vol. 4)","author":"S.J. Nowlan","year":"1991","unstructured":"Nowlan, S.J., & Hinton, G.E. (1991). Simplifying neural networks by soft weight-sharing.Advances in neural information processing systems (Vol. 4) (pp. 993?1000). Denver, CO: Morgan Kaufmann."},{"key":"CR26","volume-title":"Using explanation-based and empirical methods in theory revision","author":"D. Ourston","year":"1991","unstructured":"Ourston, D. (1991).Using explanation-based and empirical methods in theory revision. Ph.D. thesis, Department of Computer Sciences, University of Texas, Austin, TX."},{"key":"CR27","first-page":"815","volume-title":"Changing the rules: A comprehensive approach to theory refinement","author":"D. Ourston","year":"1990","unstructured":"Ourston, D., & Mooney, R.J. (1990). Changing the rules: A comprehensive approach to theory refinement.Proceedings of the Eighth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (pp. 815?820). Boston, MA: AAAI Press."},{"key":"CR28","unstructured":"Pazzani, M. (1992). When prior knowledge hinders learning.Workshop Notes of Constraining Learning with Prior Knowledge (pp. 44?52). San Jose, CA."},{"key":"CR29","first-page":"584","volume-title":"Direct transfer of learned information among neural networks","author":"L.Y. Pratt","year":"1991","unstructured":"Pratt, L.Y., Mostow, J., & Kamm, C.A. (1991). Direct transfer of learned information among neural networks.Proceedings of the Ninth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (pp. 584?589). Anaheim, CA: AAAI Press."},{"key":"CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7373(87)80053-6","volume":"27","author":"J.R. Quinlan","year":"1987","unstructured":"Quinlan, J.R. (1987). Simplifying decision trees.International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 27, 221?234.","journal-title":"International Journal of Man-Machine Studies"},{"key":"CR31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/5236.001.0001","volume-title":"Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition. Volume 1: Foundations","author":"D.E. Rumelhart","year":"1986","unstructured":"Rumelhart, D.E., Hinton, G.E., & Williams, R.J. (1986). Learning internal representations by error propagation. In D.E. Rumelhart & J.L. McClelland (Eds.),Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition. Volume 1: Foundations (pp. 318?362). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press."},{"key":"CR32","first-page":"255","volume-title":"Medical diagnostic expert system based on PDP model","author":"K. Saito","year":"1988","unstructured":"Saito, K., & Nakano, R. (1988). Medical diagnostic expert system based on PDP model.Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Neural Networks (Vol. 1) (pp. 255?262). San Diego, CA: IEEE."},{"key":"CR33","volume-title":"Using multi-layered neural networks for learning symbolic knowledge","author":"S. Sestito","year":"1990","unstructured":"Sestito, S., & Dillon, T. (1990). Using multi-layered neural networks for learning symbolic knowledge.Proceedings of the Fourth Australian Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence. Perth, Australia: World Scientific."},{"key":"CR34","first-page":"111","volume":"6","author":"J.W. Shavlik","year":"1991","unstructured":"Shavlik, J.W., Mooney, R.J., & Towell, G.G. (1991). Symbolic and neural net learning algorithms: An empirical comparison.Machine Learning, 6, 111?143.","journal-title":"Machine Learning"},{"key":"CR35","volume-title":"Methods in enzymology (Vol. 183)","author":"G.D. Stormo","year":"1990","unstructured":"Stormo, G.D. (1990). Consensus patterns in DNA.Methods in enzymology (Vol. 183). Orlando, FL: Academic Press."},{"key":"CR36","first-page":"823","volume-title":"Two problems with backpropagation and other steepest descent learning procedures for networks","author":"R.S. Sutton","year":"1986","unstructured":"Sutton, R.S. (1986). Two problems with backpropagation and other steepest descent learning procedures for networks.Program of the Eighth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 823?831). Amherst, MA: Erlbaum."},{"key":"CR37","first-page":"554","volume-title":"Using background knowledge in concept formation","author":"K. Thompson","year":"1991","unstructured":"Thompson, K., Langley, P., & Iba, W. (1991). Using background knowledge in concept formation.Proceedings of the Eighth International Machine Learning Workshop (pp. 554?558). Evanston, IL: Morgan Kaufmann."},{"key":"CR38","series-title":"Technical Report","volume-title":"The MONK's problem: A performance comparison of different learning algorithms","author":"S. Thrun","year":"1991","unstructured":"Thrun, S., Bala, J. Bloedorn, E., Bratko, I., Cestnik, B., Cheng, J., De Jong, K., Dzeroski, S., Fahlman, S., Fisher, D., Hamann, R., Kaufman, K., Keller, S., Kononenko, I., Kreuziger, J., Michalski, R., Mitchell, T., Pachowicz, P., Reich, Y., Vafaie, H., Van de Welde, W., Wenzel, W., Wnek, J., & Zhang, J. (1991).The MONK's problem: A performance comparison of different learning algorithms. (Technical Report CMU-CS-91-197). Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Mellon."},{"key":"CR39","volume-title":"Symbolic knowledge and neural networks: Insertion, refinement, and extraction","author":"G.G. Towell","year":"1991","unstructured":"Towell, G.G. (1991).Symbolic knowledge and neural networks: Insertion, refinement, and extraction. Ph.D. thesis, Computer Sciences Department, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI."},{"key":"CR40","first-page":"977","volume-title":"Advances in neural information processing systems (Vol. 4)","author":"G.G. Towell","year":"1991","unstructured":"Towell, G.G., & Shavlik, J.W. (1991). Interpretation of artificial neural networks: Mapping knowledge-based neural networks into rules.Advances in neural information processing systems (Vol. 4) (pp. 977?984). Denver, CO: Morgan Kaufmann."},{"key":"CR41","first-page":"861","volume-title":"Refinement of approximately correct domain theories by knowledge-based neural networks","author":"G.G. Towell","year":"1990","unstructured":"Towell, G.G., Shavlik, J.W., & Noordewier, M.O. (1990). Refinement of approximately correct domain theories by knowledge-based neural networks.Proceedings of the Eighth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (pp. 861?866). Boston: MA: AAAI Press."},{"key":"CR42","volume-title":"Computer systems that learn","author":"S.M. Weiss","year":"1990","unstructured":"Weiss, S.M., & Kulikowski, C.A. (1990).Computer systems that learn. San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann."}],"container-title":["Machine Learning"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/BF00993103.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/BF00993103\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/BF00993103","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,5]],"date-time":"2020-04-05T08:11:02Z","timestamp":1586074262000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/BF00993103"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1993,10]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1993,10]]}},"alternative-id":["BF00993103"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/bf00993103","relation":{},"ISSN":["0885-6125","1573-0565"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0885-6125","type":"print"},{"value":"1573-0565","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[1993,10]]}}}