{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,13]],"date-time":"2026-05-13T17:31:05Z","timestamp":1778693465320,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,25]],"date-time":"2019-06-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1561420800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/www.springer.com\/tdm"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,25]],"date-time":"2019-06-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1561420800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/www.springer.com\/tdm"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["AI & Soc"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,6]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-019-00897-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,25]],"date-time":"2019-06-25T13:33:00Z","timestamp":1561469580000},"page":"343-354","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["Legal personhood for artificial intelligence: citizenship as the exception to the rule"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"35","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5849-1605","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tyler L.","family":"Jaynes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"897_CR1","first-page":"25","volume":"9","author":"T Allen","year":"1996","unstructured":"Allen T, Widdison R (1996) Can computers make contracts? Harv J Law Technol 9:25\u201351","journal-title":"Harv J Law Technol"},{"key":"897_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-013-9513-9","volume":"21","author":"H Ashrafian","year":"2015","unstructured":"Ashrafian H (2015) AIonAI: a humanitarian law of artificial intelligence and robots. Sci Eng Ethics 21:29\u201340. \nhttps:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11948-013-9513-9","journal-title":"Sci Eng Ethics"},{"key":"897_CR3","unstructured":"Baker LR (2008) The shrinking difference between artifacts and natural objects. In: Boltuc P (ed) Newsletter on philosophy and computers, vol 7, no. 2. American Philosophical Association Newsletter on Philosophy and Computers, pp 1\u201310"},{"key":"897_CR4","first-page":"649","volume":"39","author":"W Barfield","year":"2006","unstructured":"Barfield W (2006) Intellectual property rights in virtual environments: considering the rights of owners, programmers and virtual avatars. Akron Law Rev 39:649\u2013700","journal-title":"Akron Law Rev"},{"key":"897_CR5","volume-title":"Our final invention: Artificial intelligence and the end of the human era","author":"J Barrat","year":"2013","unstructured":"Barrat J (2013) Our final invention: Artificial intelligence and the end of the human era. St. Martin\u2019s, New York"},{"key":"897_CR6","first-page":"46","volume":"1","author":"E Bayamlioglu","year":"2008","unstructured":"Bayamlioglu E (2008) Intelligent agents and their legal status. Ankara B Rev 1:46\u201354","journal-title":"Ankara B Rev"},{"key":"897_CR7","first-page":"1","volume":"5","author":"A Bridy","year":"2012","unstructured":"Bridy A (2012) Coding creativity: copyright and the artificially intelligent author. Stanf Technol Law Rev 5:1\u201328","journal-title":"Stanf Technol Law Rev"},{"key":"897_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1007\/s10506-017-9214-9","volume":"25","author":"JJ Bryson","year":"2017","unstructured":"Bryson JJ, Diamantis ME, Grant TD (2017) Of, for, and by the people: the legal lacuna of synthetic persons. Artif Intell Law 25:273\u2013291","journal-title":"Artif Intell Law"},{"key":"897_CR9","volume-title":"Consciousness and the brain: deciphering how the brain codes our thoughts","author":"S Dehaene","year":"2014","unstructured":"Dehaene S (2014) Consciousness and the brain: deciphering how the brain codes our thoughts. Viking, New York"},{"key":"897_CR10","first-page":"305","volume":"19","author":"R Dowell","year":"2018","unstructured":"Dowell R (2018) Fundamental protections for non-biological intelligences (or: how we learn to stop worrying and love our robot brethren). Minn J Law Sci Technol 19:305\u2013335","journal-title":"Minn J Law Sci Technol"},{"key":"897_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1108\/eb005587","volume":"10","author":"R Forsyth","year":"1981","unstructured":"Forsyth R (1981) BEAGLE\u2014a Darwinian approach to pattern recognition. Kybernetes 10:159\u2013166. \nhttps:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/eb005587","journal-title":"Kybernetes"},{"key":"897_CR12","unstructured":"Griffin A (2017) Facebook\u2019s artificial intelligence robots shut down after they start talking to each other in their own language. Independent. \nhttps:\/\/www.independent.co.uk\/life-style\/gadgets-and-tech\/news\/facebook-artificial-intelligence-ai-chatbot-new-language-research-openai-google-\n\n. Accessed 10 May 2019"},{"key":"897_CR13","unstructured":"Hamman BA (2006) US patent no. US7120021B2. U.S. Pat. Trademark Office, pp 1\u201356"},{"key":"897_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.17104\/9783406704024","volume-title":"Homo deus: a brief history of tomorrow","author":"YN Harari","year":"2017","unstructured":"Harari YN (2017) Homo deus: a brief history of tomorrow. HarperCollins Publishers, New York"},{"key":"897_CR15","first-page":"431","volume":"57","author":"K Hristov","year":"2017","unstructured":"Hristov K (2017) Artificial intelligence and the copyright dilemma. IDEA J Frankl Pierce Cent Intellect Prop 57:431\u2013454","journal-title":"IDEA J Frankl Pierce Cent Intellect Prop"},{"key":"897_CR16","first-page":"405","volume":"83","author":"FP Hubbard","year":"2011","unstructured":"Hubbard FP (2011) \u201cDo androids dream?\u201d: Personhood and intelligent artifacts. Temple Law Rev 83:405\u2013474","journal-title":"Temple Law Rev"},{"key":"897_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.4018\/jte.2010100105","volume":"1","author":"L Johansson","year":"2010","unstructured":"Johansson L (2010) The functional morality of robots. Int J Technoethics 1:65\u201373. \nhttps:\/\/doi.org\/10.4018\/jte.2010100105","journal-title":"Int J Technoethics"},{"key":"897_CR18","first-page":"18","volume-title":"Second treatise of government","author":"J Locke","year":"1980","unstructured":"Locke J (1980) Chapter 5: property. In: McPherson CB (ed) Second treatise of government. Hackett Publishing, Indianapolis, pp 18\u201329"},{"key":"897_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1007\/sl12142-015-0387-x","volume":"16","author":"LF Miller","year":"2015","unstructured":"Miller LF (2015) Granting automata human rights: challenge to a basis of full-rights privilege. Hum Rights Rev 16:369\u2013391. \nhttps:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/sl12142-015-0387-x","journal-title":"Hum Rights Rev"},{"key":"897_CR20","first-page":"239","volume":"2007","author":"LB Moses","year":"2007","unstructured":"Moses LB (2007) Recurring dilemmas: the law\u2019s race to keep up with technological change. Univ Ill J Law Policy 2007:239\u2013285","journal-title":"Univ Ill J Law Policy"},{"key":"897_CR21","unstructured":"Omohundro S (2007) Standford computer systems colloquium talk: self-improving AI and the future of computing. Self-aware systems. \nhttps:\/\/selfawaresystems.com\/2007\/11\/01\/standford-computer-systems-colloquium-self-improving-ai-and-the-future-of-computing\/\n\n. Accessed 10 May 2019"},{"key":"897_CR22","volume-title":"AIQ: how people and machines are smarter together","author":"N Polson","year":"2018","unstructured":"Polson N, Scott J (2018) AIQ: how people and machines are smarter together. St. Martin\u2019s, New York"},{"key":"897_CR23","first-page":"1","volume":"87","author":"G Ramachandran","year":"2009","unstructured":"Ramachandran G (2009) Against the right to bodily integrity: of cyborgs and human rights. Denver Univ Law Rev 87:1\u201357","journal-title":"Denver Univ Law Rev"},{"key":"897_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1111\/misp.12032","volume":"30","author":"E Schwitzgebel","year":"2015","unstructured":"Schwitzgebel E, Garza M (2015) A defense of the rights of artificial intelligence. Midwest Stud Philos 30:98\u2013119","journal-title":"Midwest Stud Philos"},{"key":"897_CR25","unstructured":"Snodgrass MM (1989) The measure of a man. In: Scheerer R (director) Star trek: the next generation, season two, episode 9 (13 February 1989)"},{"key":"897_CR26","first-page":"1231","volume":"70","author":"LB Solum","year":"1992","unstructured":"Solum LB (1992) Legal personhood for artificial intelligences. N C Law Rev 70:1231\u20131287","journal-title":"N C Law Rev"},{"key":"897_CR27","first-page":"450","volume":"45","author":"CD Stone","year":"1972","unstructured":"Stone CD (1972) Should trees have standing? Toward legal rights for natural objects. South Calif Law Rev 45:450\u2013501","journal-title":"South Calif Law Rev"},{"key":"897_CR28","first-page":"1","volume":"10","author":"MF Thompson","year":"2009","unstructured":"Thompson MF (2009) Earnings of a lifetime: comparing women and men with college and graduate degrees. InContext 10:1\u201310","journal-title":"InContext"},{"key":"897_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1093\/mind\/LIX.236.433","volume":"49","author":"AM Turing","year":"1950","unstructured":"Turing AM (1950) Computing machinery and intelligence. Mind 49:433\u2013460","journal-title":"Mind"},{"key":"897_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-21714-7_3","volume-title":"Roboethics: a navigating overview","author":"SG Tzafestas","year":"2016","unstructured":"Tzafestas SG (2016) Artificial intelligence. In: Tzafestas SG (ed) Roboethics: a navigating overview. Springer International, Cham, pp 25\u201333"},{"key":"897_CR31","first-page":"103","volume":"6","author":"LE Wein","year":"1992","unstructured":"Wein LE (1992) The responsibility of intelligent artifacts: toward an automation jurisprudence. Harv J Law Technol 6:103\u2013154","journal-title":"Harv J Law Technol"}],"container-title":["AI & SOCIETY"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00146-019-00897-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00146-019-00897-9\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00146-019-00897-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,23]],"date-time":"2020-06-23T23:30:59Z","timestamp":1592955059000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00146-019-00897-9"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,25]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,6]]}},"alternative-id":["897"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-019-00897-9","relation":{},"ISSN":["0951-5666","1435-5655"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0951-5666","type":"print"},{"value":"1435-5655","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,25]]},"assertion":[{"value":"15 October 2018","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"14 June 2019","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 June 2019","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}}]}}