{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,28]],"date-time":"2026-03-28T18:08:25Z","timestamp":1774721305787,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,25]],"date-time":"2020-04-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1587772800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springer.com\/tdm"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,25]],"date-time":"2020-04-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1587772800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springer.com\/tdm"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["AI & Soc"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,12]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-020-00977-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,25]],"date-time":"2020-04-25T09:02:45Z","timestamp":1587805365000},"page":"795-809","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":61,"title":["Artificial virtue: the machine question and perceptions of moral character in artificial moral agents"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"35","author":[{"given":"Patrick","family":"Gamez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Daniel B.","family":"Shank","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Carson","family":"Arnold","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Mallory","family":"North","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"977_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-019-00357-8","author":"N Agar","year":"2019","unstructured":"Agar N (2019) How to treat machines that might have minds. Philos Technol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13347-019-00357-8","journal-title":"Philos Technol"},{"key":"977_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780190271466.003.0011","volume-title":"Developing the virtues: integrating perspectives","author":"J Annas","year":"2016","unstructured":"Annas J (2016) Learning virtue rules: the issue of thick concepts. In: Annas J, Narvaez D, Snow NE (eds) Developing the virtues: integrating perspectives. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 224\u2013234"},{"key":"977_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aristotle (2011) Aristotle\u2019s nicomachean ethics (trans and ed: Bartlett RC, Collins SD). University of Chicago, Chicago","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226026763.001.0001"},{"key":"977_CR4","unstructured":"Berberich N, Diepold K (2018) The virtuous machine-old ethics for new technology? arXiv preprint arXiv:1806.10322"},{"key":"977_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2018.08.003","volume":"181","author":"YE Bigman","year":"2018","unstructured":"Bigman YE, Gray K (2018) People are averse to machines making moral decisions. Cognition 181:21\u201334. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cognition.2018.08.003","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"977_CR6","volume-title":"Mind as machine: a history of cognitive science","author":"MA Boden","year":"2006","unstructured":"Boden MA (2006) Mind as machine: a history of cognitive science. Clarendon Press, Oxford"},{"key":"977_CR7","volume-title":"AI: its nature and future","author":"MA Boden","year":"2016","unstructured":"Boden MA (2016) AI: its nature and future. Oxford University Press, New York"},{"key":"977_CR8","volume-title":"Superintelligence: paths, dangers, strategies","author":"N Bostrom","year":"2014","unstructured":"Bostrom N (2014) Superintelligence: paths, dangers, strategies. Oxford, New York"},{"issue":"3","key":"977_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-010-9235-5","volume":"12","author":"M Coeckelbergh","year":"2010","unstructured":"Coeckelbergh M (2010) Robot rights? Towards a social-relational justification of moral consideration. Ethics Inf Technol 12(3):209\u2013221","journal-title":"Ethics Inf Technol"},{"key":"977_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-015-0211-1","volume":"29","author":"J Danaher","year":"2016","unstructured":"Danaher J (2016) The threat of algocracy: reality, resistance, and accommodation. Philos Technol 29:245\u2013268","journal-title":"Philos Technol"},{"key":"977_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-019-00119-x","author":"J Danaher","year":"2019","unstructured":"Danaher J (2019) Welcoming robots into the moral circle: a defence of ethical behaviourism. Sci Eng Ethics. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11948-019-00119-x","journal-title":"Sci Eng Ethics"},{"issue":"2","key":"977_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1007\/s11007-011-9175-8","volume":"44","author":"F Dastur","year":"2011","unstructured":"Dastur F (2011) The question of the other in French phenomenology. Cont Philos Rev 44(2):165\u2013178","journal-title":"Cont Philos Rev"},{"key":"977_CR13","unstructured":"Emerging technology from the arXiv (2015) Why self-driving cars must be programmed to kill. MIT Technology Review. https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com. Accessed 22 Oct 2015"},{"key":"977_CR14","volume-title":"Automating inequality: how high-tech tools profile, police, and punish the poor","author":"V Eubanks","year":"2018","unstructured":"Eubanks V (2018) Automating inequality: how high-tech tools profile, police, and punish the poor. St Martin\u2019s, New York"},{"issue":"1","key":"977_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1515\/opphil-2018-0014","volume":"1","author":"P Gamez","year":"2018","unstructured":"Gamez P (2018) Metaphysics or metaphors for the anthropocene? Scientific naturalism and the agency of things. Open Philos 1(1):191\u2013212","journal-title":"Open Philos"},{"key":"977_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Govindarajulu NS, Bringsjord S, Ghosh R, Sarathy V (2019) Toward the engineering of virtuous machines. In: Proceedings of the 2019 AAAI\/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society, pp 29\u201335. ACM","DOI":"10.1145\/3306618.3314256"},{"issue":"1","key":"977_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2012.06.007","volume":"125","author":"K Gray","year":"2012","unstructured":"Gray K, Wegner D (2012) Feeling robots and human zombies: mind perception and the uncanny valley. Cognition 125(1):125\u2013130. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cognition.2012.06.007","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"issue":"2","key":"977_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1080\/1047840x.2012.651387","volume":"23","author":"K Gray","year":"2012","unstructured":"Gray K, Young L, Waytz A (2012) Mind perception is the essence of morality. Psychol Inq 23(2):101\u2013124. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/1047840x.2012.651387","journal-title":"Psychol Inq"},{"key":"977_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/8975.001.0001","volume-title":"The machine question: critical perspectives on AI, robots, and ethics","author":"DJ Gunkel","year":"2012","unstructured":"Gunkel DJ (2012) The machine question: critical perspectives on AI, robots, and ethics. MIT Press, Cambridge"},{"key":"977_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/11444.001.0001","volume-title":"Robot rights","author":"DJ Gunkel","year":"2018","unstructured":"Gunkel DJ (2018) Robot rights. MIT Press, Cambridge"},{"key":"977_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1057\/9780230614949","volume-title":"Moral selves, evil selves: the social psychology of conscience","author":"S Hitlin","year":"2008","unstructured":"Hitlin S (2008) Moral selves, evil selves: the social psychology of conscience. Palgrave Macmillan, New York"},{"key":"977_CR22","unstructured":"Howard D, Muntean I (2016) A minimalist model of the artificial autonomous moral agent (AAMA). In: 2016 AAAI Spring Symposium Series, Palo Alto California, March 2016. https:\/\/www.aaai.org\/ocs\/index.php\/SSS\/SSS16\/paper\/view\/12760\/11954. Accessed 20 Apr 2020"},{"key":"977_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Howard D, Muntean I (2017) Artificial moral cognition: moral functionalism and autonomous moral agency. In: Philos Comput, pp 121\u2013159. Springer, Cham","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-61043-6_7"},{"key":"977_CR24","volume-title":"On virtue ethics","author":"R Hursthouse","year":"1999","unstructured":"Hursthouse R (1999) On virtue ethics. OUP, Oxford"},{"key":"977_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/actrade\/9780192804570.001.0001","volume-title":"Buddhist ethics: a very short introduction","author":"D Keown","year":"2005","unstructured":"Keown D (2005) Buddhist ethics: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, New York"},{"issue":"2","key":"977_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1080\/09515080307771","volume":"16","author":"J Knobe","year":"2003","unstructured":"Knobe J (2003a) Intentional action in folk psychology: an experimental investigation. Philos Psychol 16(2):309\u2013324","journal-title":"Philos Psychol"},{"issue":"3","key":"977_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1093\/analys\/63.3.190","volume":"63","author":"J Knobe","year":"2003","unstructured":"Knobe J (2003b) Intentional action and side effects in ordinary language. Analysis 63(3):190\u2013194","journal-title":"Analysis"},{"key":"977_CR28","unstructured":"Kraut R (2018) Aristotle\u2019s ethics. The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/Aristotle-ethics. Accessed 15 June 2018"},{"key":"977_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.5040\/9781474219150","volume-title":"Levinas\u2019 \u201cTotality and Infinity\u201d: a reader\u2019s guide","author":"W Large","year":"2015","unstructured":"Large W (2015) Levinas\u2019 \u201cTotality and Infinity\u201d: a reader\u2019s guide. Bloomsbury Publishing, New York"},{"issue":"4","key":"977_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1109\/MIS.2006.80","volume":"21","author":"J Moor","year":"2006","unstructured":"Moor J (2006) The nature, importance, and difficulty of machine ethics. IEEE Intell Syst 21(4):18\u201321","journal-title":"IEEE Intell Syst"},{"key":"977_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-12524-0_11","volume-title":"Robots and eell-being","author":"BF Malle","year":"2019","unstructured":"Malle BF, Magar ST, Scheutz M (2019) AI in the sky: how people morally evaluate human and machine decisions in a lethal strike dilemma. In: Ferreira IA, Sequeira JS, Virk GS, Kadar EE, Tokhi O (eds) Robots and eell-being. Springer Verlag, Berlin, pp 111\u2013133"},{"key":"977_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511978036.010","volume-title":"Machine ethics","author":"D McDermott","year":"2011","unstructured":"McDermott D (2011) What matters to a machine?. In: Anderson M, Anderson SL (eds) Machine ethics. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 88\u2013114"},{"key":"977_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511805240","volume-title":"Discovering levinas","author":"ML Morgan","year":"2007","unstructured":"Morgan ML (2007) Discovering levinas. Cambridge University Press, New York"},{"issue":"1","key":"977_CR034","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1111\/0022-4537.00153","volume":"56","author":"C Nass","year":"2000","unstructured":"Nass C, Moon Y (2000) Machines and Mindlessness: Social Responses to Computers. J Soc Issues 56(1):81\u2013103","journal-title":"J Soc Issues"},{"key":"977_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctt1pwt9w5","volume-title":"Algorithms of oppression: how search engines reinforce racism","author":"S Noble","year":"2018","unstructured":"Noble S (2018) Algorithms of oppression: how search engines reinforce racism. NYU, New York"},{"key":"977_CR35","volume-title":"Weapons of math destruction: how big data increases inequality and threatens democracy","author":"C O\u2019Neil","year":"2016","unstructured":"O\u2019Neil C (2016) Weapons of math destruction: how big data increases inequality and threatens democracy. Crown, New York"},{"key":"977_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Regan T (1987) The case for animal rights. In: Adv Anim Welf Sci, pp 179\u2013189. Springer, Dordrecht","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-009-3331-6_15"},{"key":"977_CR37","unstructured":"Seidel J (2019) Life savers, or killer robots? Australian airforce \u2018Loyal Wingman\u2019 autonomous drones. The Advertiser. https:\/\/www.adelaidenow.com.au. Accessed 11 Mar 2019"},{"issue":"3","key":"977_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2012.11.006","volume":"29","author":"DB Shank","year":"2013","unstructured":"Shank DB (2013) Are computers good or bad for business? How mediated customer-computer interaction alters emotion, impressions, and patronage toward organizations. Comput Hum Behav 29(3):715\u2013725","journal-title":"Comput Hum Behav"},{"issue":"10\u201311","key":"977_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2014.05.002","volume":"72","author":"DB Shank","year":"2014","unstructured":"Shank DB (2014) Impressions of computer and human agents after interaction: computer identity weakens power but not goodness impressions. Int J Hum Comput Stud 72(10\u201311):747\u2013756","journal-title":"Int J Hum Comput Stud"},{"key":"977_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2018.05.014","volume":"86","author":"DB Shank","year":"2018","unstructured":"Shank DB, Desanti A (2018) Attributions of morality and mind to artificial intelligence after real-world moral violations. Comput Hum Behav 86:401\u2013411. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chb.2018.05.014","journal-title":"Comput Hum Behav"},{"key":"977_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1369118X.2019.156851","author":"DB Shank","year":"2019","unstructured":"Shank DB, DeSanti A, Maninger T (2019) When are artificial intelligence versus human agents faulted for wrongdoing? Moral attributions after individual and joint decisions. Inf Commun Soc. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/1369118X.2019.156851","journal-title":"Inf Commun Soc"},{"key":"977_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/11474.001.0001","volume-title":"The deep learning revolution: machine intelligence meets human intelligence","author":"M Sejnowski","year":"2018","unstructured":"Sejnowski M (2018) The deep learning revolution: machine intelligence meets human intelligence. The MIT Press, Cambridge"},{"key":"977_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1057\/978-1-137-59177-7_7","volume-title":"Varieties of virtue ethics","author":"M Sim","year":"2017","unstructured":"Sim M (2017) Confucian and daoist virtue ethics. In: Carr D, Arthur J, Kristj\u00e1nsson K (eds) Varieties of virtue ethics. Palgrave Macmillan, London, pp 105\u2013121"},{"key":"977_CR44","volume-title":"Animal liberation: a new ethics for the treatment of animals","author":"P Singer","year":"1975","unstructured":"Singer P (1975) Animal liberation: a new ethics for the treatment of animals. New York Review, New York"},{"key":"977_CR45","first-page":"369","volume":"22","author":"H Smith","year":"2012","unstructured":"Smith H (2012) Using moral principles to guide actions. Philos Investig 22:369\u2013386","journal-title":"Philos Investig"},{"key":"977_CR46","unstructured":"Strawson PF (1962) Freedom and resentment. In: Watson G (ed) Proceedings of the British Academy, Oxford, vol 48, pp 1\u201325"},{"key":"977_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511978036.011","volume-title":"Machine ethics","author":"S Torrance","year":"2011","unstructured":"Torrance S (2011) Machine ethics and the idea of a more-than-human moral world. In: Anderson M, Anderson SL (eds) Machine ethics. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 115\u2013137"},{"key":"977_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511978036.008","volume-title":"Machine ethics","author":"S Turkle","year":"2011","unstructured":"Turkle S (2011) Authenticity in the age of digital companions. In: Anderson M, Anderson SL (eds) Machine ethics. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 62\u201376"},{"key":"977_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780190498511.001.0001","volume-title":"Technology and the virtues: a philosophical guide to a future worth wanting","author":"S Vallor","year":"2016","unstructured":"Vallor S (2016) Technology and the virtues: a philosophical guide to a future worth wanting. Oxford University Press, Oxford"},{"key":"977_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-018-0030-8","volume":"25","author":"A van Wynsberghe","year":"2019","unstructured":"van Wynsberghe A, Robbins S (2019) Critiquing the reasons for making moral machines. Sci Eng Ethics 25:719\u2013735","journal-title":"Sci Eng Ethics"},{"key":"977_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195374049.001.0001","volume-title":"Moral machines: teaching robots right from wrong","author":"W Wallach","year":"2009","unstructured":"Wallach W, Allen C (2009) Moral machines: teaching robots right from wrong. Oxford University Press, Oxford"},{"key":"977_CR52","unstructured":"Wroe D (2019) \u2018Killer robots\u2019 to be taught ethics in world-topping Australian research project. Sydney Morning Herald. https:\/\/www.smh.com\/au. Accessed 28 Feb 2019"},{"key":"977_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-31674-6_29","volume-title":"Philosophy and theory of artificial intelligence","author":"R Yampolskiy","year":"2013","unstructured":"Yampolskiy R (2013) Artificial intelligence safety engineering: why machine ethics is a wrong approach. In: M\u00fcller V (ed) Philosophy and theory of artificial intelligence. Springer, New York, pp 389-396"},{"key":"977_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103870","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesp.2019.103870","volume":"85","author":"AD Young","year":"2019","unstructured":"Young AD, Monroe AE (2019) Autonomous morals: inferences of mind predict acceptance of AI behavior in sacrificial moral dilemmas. J Exp Soc Psychol 85:103870. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jesp.2019.103870","journal-title":"J Exp Soc Psychol"}],"container-title":["AI & SOCIETY"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00146-020-00977-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00146-020-00977-1\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00146-020-00977-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,30]],"date-time":"2023-09-30T09:50:30Z","timestamp":1696067430000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00146-020-00977-1"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,25]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,12]]}},"alternative-id":["977"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-020-00977-1","relation":{},"ISSN":["0951-5666","1435-5655"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0951-5666","type":"print"},{"value":"1435-5655","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,25]]},"assertion":[{"value":"22 December 2019","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"7 April 2020","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 April 2020","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}}]}}