{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]],"date-time":"2026-06-26T07:36:54Z","timestamp":1782459414922,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,12]],"date-time":"2021-05-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1620777600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,12]],"date-time":"2021-05-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1620777600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["AI &amp; Soc"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>In this paper, we sketch a programme for AI-driven social theory. We begin by defining what we mean by artificial intelligence (AI) in this context. We then lay out our specification for how AI-based models can draw on the growing availability of digital data to help test the validity of different social theories based on their predictive power. In doing so, we use the work of Randall Collins and his state breakdown model to exemplify that, already today, AI-based models can help synthesise knowledge from a variety of sources, reason about the world, and apply what is known across a wide range of problems in a systematic way. However, we also find that AI-driven social theory remains subject to a range of practical, technical, and epistemological limitations. Most critically, existing AI-systems lack three essential capabilities needed to advance social theory in ways that are cumulative, holistic, open-ended, and purposeful. These are (1) semanticisation, i.e., the ability to develop and operationalize verbal concepts to represent machine-manipulable knowledge; (2) transferability, i.e., the ability to transfer what has been learned in one context to another; and (3) generativity, i.e., the ability to independently create and improve on concepts and models. We argue that if the gaps identified here are addressed by further research, there is no reason why, in the future, the most advanced programme in social theory should not be led by AI-driven cumulative advances.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-021-01222-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,12]],"date-time":"2021-05-12T02:57:19Z","timestamp":1620788239000},"page":"1337-1351","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["AI and social theory"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"37","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8691-2582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jakob","family":"M\u00f6kander","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4229-1585","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ralph","family":"Schroeder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,12]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"1222_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1109\/2197471","volume":"21","author":"J Albus","year":"1991","unstructured":"Albus J (1991) Outline for a theory of intelligence. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern 21(3):473\u2013509. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/2197471","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern"},{"key":"1222_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.so.20.080194.002203","volume":"20","author":"WS Bainbridge","year":"1994","unstructured":"Bainbridge WS, Brent E, Carley K et al (1994) Artificial social intelligence. Ann Rev Sociol 20:407\u2013436","journal-title":"Ann Rev Sociol"},{"issue":"27","key":"1222_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7345","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1510507113","volume":"113","author":"E Bareinboim","year":"2016","unstructured":"Bareinboim E, Pearl J (2016) Causal inference and the data-fusion problem. Proc Natl Acad Sci 113(27):7345\u20137352","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci"},{"key":"1222_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-polisci-090216-023229","volume":"22","author":"H Brady","year":"2019","unstructured":"Brady H (2019) The challenge of big data and data science. Annu Rev Polit Sci 22:297\u2013323","journal-title":"Annu Rev Polit Sci"},{"key":"1222_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.4135\/9781473957992.n21","volume-title":"The sage handbook of online research methods","author":"E Brent","year":"2017","unstructured":"Brent E (2017) Artificial intelligence\/expert systems in online research. In: Fielding N, Lee R, Blank G (eds) The sage handbook of online research methods. Sage, London, pp 361\u2013379"},{"key":"1222_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.2307\/223353","volume":"2","author":"R Collins","year":"1984","unstructured":"Collins R (1984) Statistics versus words. Sociol Theory 2:329\u2013362","journal-title":"Sociol Theory"},{"key":"1222_CR7","volume-title":"Theoretical sociology","author":"R Collins","year":"1988","unstructured":"Collins R (1988) Theoretical sociology. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, San Diego"},{"key":"1222_CR8","volume-title":"Sociological insight: an introduction to non-obvious sociology","author":"R Collins","year":"1992","unstructured":"Collins R (1992) Sociological insight: an introduction to non-obvious sociology. Oxford University Press, Oxford"},{"key":"1222_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/9781503617957","volume-title":"Macrohistory: essays in the sociology of the long run","author":"R Collins","year":"1999","unstructured":"Collins R (1999) Macrohistory: essays in the sociology of the long run. Stanford University Press, Stanford"},{"key":"1222_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/9781400851744","volume-title":"Interaction ritual chains","author":"R Collins","year":"2004","unstructured":"Collins R (2004) Interaction ritual chains. Princeton University Press, Princeton"},{"key":"1222_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctt4cg9d3","volume-title":"Violence: a micro-sociological theory","author":"R Collins","year":"2009","unstructured":"Collins R (2009) Violence: a micro-sociological theory. Princeton University Press, Princeton"},{"key":"1222_CR12","volume-title":"Conflict sociology: a sociological classic updated","author":"R Collins","year":"2016","unstructured":"Collins R, Sanderson S (2016) Conflict sociology: a sociological classic updated. Routledge, Abingdon"},{"key":"1222_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Compton, K, Mateas M (2017) A generative framework of generativity. In: AIIDE Workshops 2017, pp 41\u201348. www.aaai.or","DOI":"10.1609\/aiide.v13i2.12974"},{"key":"1222_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11135-020-01037-y","author":"G Di Franco","year":"2020","unstructured":"Di Franco G, Santurro M (2020) Machine learning, artificial neural networks and social research. Qual Quant. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11135-020-01037-y","journal-title":"Qual Quant"},{"issue":"3","key":"1222_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1609\/aimagv38i32756","volume":"38","author":"TG Dietterich","year":"2017","unstructured":"Dietterich TG (2017) Steps toward robust artificial intelligence. AI Mag 38(3):3\u201324.https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1609\/aimagv38i32756","journal-title":"AI Mag"},{"key":"1222_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429464157-4","volume-title":"Ritual, emotion, violence: studies on the micro-sociology of Randall Collins","author":"P DiMaggio","year":"2018","unstructured":"DiMaggio P, Bernier C, Heckscher C, Mimno D (2018) Interaction ritual threads: does IRC theory apply online? In: Weiniger E, Lareau A, Lizardo O (eds) Ritual, emotion, violence: studies on the micro-sociology of Randall Collins. Routledge, Abingdon, pp 81\u2013124"},{"key":"1222_CR18","volume-title":"Reality mining: using big data to engineer a better world","author":"N Eagle","year":"2014","unstructured":"Eagle N, Greene K (2014) Reality mining: using big data to engineer a better world. MIT Press, Cambridge"},{"key":"1222_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-121919-054621","volume":"46","author":"A Edelmann","year":"2020","unstructured":"Edelmann A, Wolff T, Montagne D, Bail CA (2020) Computational social science and sociology. Annu Rev Sociol 46:61\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-soc-121919-054621","journal-title":"Annu Rev Sociol"},{"key":"1222_CR20","volume-title":"Computers and thought","author":"EA Feigenbaum","year":"1963","unstructured":"Feigenbaum EA, Feldman J (1963) Computers and thought. McGraw-Hill, New York"},{"key":"1222_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1561\/2200000071","author":"V Francois-Lavet","year":"2018","unstructured":"Francois-Lavet V, Henderson P, Islam R, Bellemare MG, Pineau J (2018) An introduction to deep reinforcement learning foundations and trends in machine learning. Found Trends Mach Learn. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1561\/2200000071","journal-title":"Found Trends Mach Learn"},{"key":"1222_CR22","volume-title":"The development of social network analysis: a study in the sociology of science","author":"L Freeman","year":"2004","unstructured":"Freeman L (2004) The development of social network analysis: a study in the sociology of science. Empirical Press, Vancouver"},{"key":"1222_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"G\u00e4rdenfors P (2017) Semantic knowledge, domains of meaning and conceptual spaces. In: Meusburger P (ed) Knowledge and action, pp 203\u2013219. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/149647a0101038\/149647a0","DOI":"10.1038\/149647a0101038\/149647a0"},{"key":"1222_CR24","volume-title":"Legitimation of belief","author":"E Gellner","year":"1974","unstructured":"Gellner E (1974) Legitimation of belief. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge"},{"issue":"3","key":"1222_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1017\/S1537592719005000","volume":"18","author":"J Goldstone","year":"2020","unstructured":"Goldstone J, Diamond L (2020) Demography and the future of democracy. Perspect Polit 18(3):867\u2013880","journal-title":"Perspect Polit"},{"key":"1222_CR26","volume-title":"Deep learning","author":"I Goodfellow","year":"2016","unstructured":"Goodfellow I, Bengio Y, Courville A (2016) Deep learning. The MIT Press, Cambridge"},{"key":"1222_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511814563","volume-title":"Representing and Intervening","author":"I Hacking","year":"1983","unstructured":"Hacking I (1983) Representing and Intervening. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge"},{"key":"1222_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1016\/j.shpsa.2012.07.002","volume":"43","author":"I Hacking","year":"2012","unstructured":"Hacking I (2012) \u2018Language, Truth and Reason\u2019 30 years later. Stud Hist Philos Sci 43:599\u2013609","journal-title":"Stud Hist Philos Sci"},{"key":"1222_CR29","volume-title":"Computer-assisted theory building: modelling dynamic social systems","author":"R Hanemann","year":"1987","unstructured":"Hanemann R (1987) Computer-assisted theory building: modelling dynamic social systems. Sage, Beverly Hills"},{"issue":"6","key":"1222_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1177\/1046496418802362","volume":"49","author":"J Hoey","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hoey J, Schr\u00f6der T, Morgan J, Rogers KB, Rishi D, Nagappan M (2018) Artificial intelligence and social simulation: studying group dynamics on a massive scale. Small Group Res 49(6):647\u2013683. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1046496418802362","journal-title":"Small Group Res"},{"key":"1222_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003141372-16","volume-title":"Theoretical sociology: the future of a disciplinary foundation","author":"G Jasso","year":"2021","unstructured":"Jasso G (2021) Inequality and Justice. In: Abrutyn S, McCaffree K (eds) Theoretical sociology: the future of a disciplinary foundation. Routledge, Abingdon, pp 209\u2013243"},{"key":"1222_CR32","volume-title":"Analytic activism: digital listening and the new political strategy","author":"D Karpf","year":"2016","unstructured":"Karpf D (2016) Analytic activism: digital listening and the new political strategy. Oxford University Press, Oxford"},{"key":"1222_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-019-0454-4","volume":"3","author":"SJ Lade","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lade SJ, Steffen W, de Vries W et al (2020) Human impacts on planetary boundaries amplified by Earth system interactions. Nat Sustain 3:119\u2013128","journal-title":"Nat Sustain"},{"key":"1222_CR34","volume-title":"Contemporary sociological theory","author":"S Loyal","year":"2021","unstructured":"Loyal S, Malesevic S (2021) Contemporary sociological theory. Sage, Thousand Oaks"},{"key":"1222_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780199227211.001.0001","volume-title":"Contours of the world economy 1\u20132030 AD: essays in macro-economic history","author":"A Maddison","year":"2007","unstructured":"Maddison A (2007) Contours of the world economy 1\u20132030 AD: essays in macro-economic history. Oxford University Press, Oxford"},{"key":"1222_CR36","unstructured":"Marcus G (2020) The next decade in AI: four steps towards robust artificial intelligence.http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2002.06177"},{"key":"1222_CR37","volume-title":"Big data : a revolution that will transform how we live, work, and think","author":"V Mayer-Schonberger","year":"2013","unstructured":"Mayer-Schonberger V, Cukier K (2013) Big data\u202f: a revolution that will transform how we live, work, and think. John Murray, London"},{"key":"1222_CR38","unstructured":"McCarthy J (2007) What is artificial intelligence?. Computer Science Department, Stanford University"},{"key":"1222_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/8816.001.0001","volume-title":"Knowledge machines: digital transformations of the sciences and humanities","author":"E Meyer","year":"2015","unstructured":"Meyer E, Schroeder R (2015) Knowledge machines: digital transformations of the sciences and humanities. MIT Press, Cambridge"},{"key":"1222_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674969797","volume-title":"Global inequality: a new approach for the age of globalization","author":"B Milanovic","year":"2016","unstructured":"Milanovic B (2016) Global inequality: a new approach for the age of globalization. Harvard University Press, Cambridge"},{"key":"1222_CR41","volume-title":"Artificial Intelligence: a guide for to thinking humans","author":"M Mitchell","year":"2019","unstructured":"Mitchell M (2019) Artificial Intelligence: a guide for to thinking humans. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York"},{"key":"1222_CR42","volume-title":"The 2020 yearbook of the digital ethics lab","author":"J M\u00f6kander","year":"2021","unstructured":"M\u00f6kander J (2021) On the limits of design. In: Morley J, Cowls J (eds) The 2020 yearbook of the digital ethics lab. Springer, Champaign"},{"key":"1222_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26.1","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-073117-041106","volume":"45","author":"M Molina","year":"2019","unstructured":"Molina M, Garip F (2019) Machine learning for sociology. Annu Rev Sociol 45:26.1-26.19","journal-title":"Annu Rev Sociol"},{"key":"1222_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780190922061.001.0001","volume-title":"Situational breakdowns: understanding protest violence and other surprising outcomes","author":"A Nassauer","year":"2019","unstructured":"Nassauer A (2019) Situational breakdowns: understanding protest violence and other surprising outcomes. Oxford University Press, Oxford"},{"key":"1222_CR45","volume-title":"The model thinker: what you need to know to make data work for you","author":"S Page","year":"2018","unstructured":"Page S (2018) The model thinker: what you need to know to make data work for you. Basic Books, New York"},{"issue":"4","key":"1222_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1064","DOI":"10.1177\/0049124118769091","volume":"49","author":"JN Parker","year":"2020","unstructured":"Parker JN, Cardenas E, Dorr AN, Hackett EJ (2020) Using sociometers to advance small group research. Sociol Methods Res 49(4):1064\u20131102","journal-title":"Sociol Methods Res"},{"issue":"3","key":"1222_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1145\/3241036","volume":"62","author":"J Pearl","year":"2019","unstructured":"Pearl J (2019) The seven tools of causal inference, with reflections on machine learning. Commun ACM 62(3):54\u201360. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3241036","journal-title":"Commun ACM"},{"key":"1222_CR48","volume-title":"The book of why: The new science of cause and effect","author":"J Pearl","year":"2018","unstructured":"Pearl J, McKenzie D (2018) The book of why: The new science of cause and effect. Allen Lane, London"},{"issue":"3","key":"1222_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1080\/01615440.2018.1443863","volume":"51","author":"P Peregrine","year":"2018","unstructured":"Peregrine P, Brennan R, Currie T et al (2018) Dacura: a new solution to data harvesting and knowledge extraction for the historical sciences. Hist Methods 51(3):165\u2013174","journal-title":"Hist Methods"},{"key":"1222_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674369542","volume-title":"Capital in the twenty-first century","author":"T Piketty","year":"2014","unstructured":"Piketty T (2014) Capital in the twenty-first century. Belknap Press, Cambridge"},{"key":"1222_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.3389\/fdata.2020.00018","volume":"3","author":"J Radford","year":"2020","unstructured":"Radford J, Joseph K (2020) Theory in, theory out: the uses of social theory in machine learning for social science. Front Big Data 3:18. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fdata.2020.00018","journal-title":"Front Big Data"},{"key":"1222_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511600883","volume-title":"Theory and progress in social science","author":"J Rule","year":"1997","unstructured":"Rule J (1997) Theory and progress in social science. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge"},{"key":"1222_CR53","volume-title":"Artificial intelligence: a modern approach","author":"SJ Russell","year":"2015","unstructured":"Russell SJ, Norvig P (2015) Artificial intelligence: a modern approach, 3rd edn. Pearson India, New Delhi","edition":"3"},{"key":"1222_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Samoili S, L\u00f3pez Cobo, M, G\u00f3mez E, De Prato G, Mart\u00ednez-Plumed F, Delipetrev B (2020) AI Watch Defining Artificial Intelligence. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2760\/382730","DOI":"10.2760\/382730"},{"key":"1222_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.23943\/9780691184319","volume-title":"The great leveler: violence and the history of inequality from the stone age to the twenty-first century","author":"W Scheidel","year":"2018","unstructured":"Scheidel W (2018) The great leveler: violence and the history of inequality from the stone age to the twenty-first century. Princeton University Press, Princeton"},{"key":"1222_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/9781503626454","volume-title":"Rethinking science, technology and social change","author":"R Schroeder","year":"2007","unstructured":"Schroeder R (2007) Rethinking science, technology and social change. Stanford University Press, Stanford"},{"key":"1222_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1057\/9781137314628","volume-title":"An age of limits: social theory for the 21st century","author":"R Schroeder","year":"2013","unstructured":"Schroeder R (2013) An age of limits: social theory for the 21st century. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke"},{"key":"1222_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1369118X.2019.1594334","author":"R Schroeder","year":"2019","unstructured":"Schroeder R (2019) Cumulation and big data in the social sciences. Inf Commun Soc. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/1369118X.2019.1594334","journal-title":"Inf Commun Soc"},{"issue":"20190061","key":"1222_CR59","first-page":"1","volume":"378","author":"J Shalf","year":"2020","unstructured":"Shalf J (2020) The future of computing beyond Moore\u2019s law subject areas. Philos Trans R Soc 378(20190061):1\u201314","journal-title":"Philos Trans R Soc"},{"issue":"2","key":"1222_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1177\/0539018402041002003","volume":"41","author":"T Shinn","year":"2002","unstructured":"Shinn T, Joerges B (2002) The transverse science and technology culture: dynamics and roles of research-technology. Soc Sci Inform 41(2):207\u2013251","journal-title":"Soc Sci Inform"},{"key":"1222_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/12385.001.0001","volume-title":"The promise of artificial intelligence : reckoning and judgment","author":"BC Smith","year":"2019","unstructured":"Smith BC (2019) The promise of artificial intelligence\u202f: reckoning and judgment. The MIT Press, Cambridge"},{"key":"1222_CR62","volume-title":"Constructing social theories","author":"AL Stinchcombe","year":"1968","unstructured":"Stinchcombe AL (1968) Constructing social theories. University of Chicago Press, Chicago"},{"key":"1222_CR63","volume-title":"Reinforcement learning: an introduction","author":"RS Sutton","year":"2018","unstructured":"Sutton RS, Barto AG (2018) Reinforcement learning: an introduction, 2nd edn. The MIT Press, Cambridge","edition":"2"},{"key":"1222_CR64","volume-title":"Historical dynamics: why states rise and fall","author":"P Turchin","year":"2019","unstructured":"Turchin P (2019) Historical dynamics: why states rise and fall. Princeton University Press, Princeton"},{"key":"1222_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1558\/jch.39395","volume":"5","author":"P Turchin","year":"2018","unstructured":"Turchin P, Whitehouse H, Francois P et al (2018) An Introduction to Seshat: global history databank. J Cognit Historiogr 5:1\u20132. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1558\/jch.39395","journal-title":"J Cognit Historiogr"},{"key":"1222_CR66","volume-title":"The structure of sociological theory","author":"J Turner","year":"1991","unstructured":"Turner J (1991) The structure of sociological theory. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont"},{"key":"1222_CR67","volume-title":"Macrodynamics: toward a theory on the organization of human populations","author":"J Turner","year":"1995","unstructured":"Turner J (1995) Macrodynamics: toward a theory on the organization of human populations. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick"},{"key":"1222_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1007\/s12108-019-09420-5","volume":"50","author":"J Turner","year":"2019","unstructured":"Turner J (2019) The more American sociology seeks to become a politically-relevant discipline, the more irrelevant it becomes to solving societal problems. Am Sociol 50:456\u2013487","journal-title":"Am Sociol"},{"key":"1222_CR17","unstructured":"US DoD (2018) US National Defense Authorization Act (2018). https:\/\/doiorg\/HR2810"},{"key":"1222_CR69","unstructured":"Wang P (1995) Non-axiomatic reasoning system: exploring the essence of intelligence. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, Ann Arbor"},{"issue":"2","key":"1222_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2478\/jagi-2019-0002","volume":"10","author":"P Wang","year":"2019","unstructured":"Wang P (2019) On defining artificial intelligence. J Artif Gen Intell 10(2):1\u201337. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2478\/jagi-2019-0002","journal-title":"J Artif Gen Intell"},{"key":"1222_CR71","volume-title":"Identity and control: a structural theory of social action","author":"HC White","year":"1992","unstructured":"White HC (1992) Identity and control: a structural theory of social action. Princeton University Press, Princeton"},{"key":"1222_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780199240531.001.0001","volume-title":"The intellectual and social organization of the sciences","author":"R Whitley","year":"2000","unstructured":"Whitley R (2000) The intellectual and social organization of the sciences, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford","edition":"2"},{"key":"1222_CR73","volume-title":"The human use of human beings: cybernetics and society","author":"N Wiener","year":"1954","unstructured":"Wiener N (1954) The human use of human beings: cybernetics and society. Eyre & Spottiswoode, London"},{"issue":"3","key":"1222_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1177\/0002764209338800","volume":"53","author":"D Zhao","year":"2009","unstructured":"Zhao D (2009) The mandate of heaven and performance legitimation in historical and contemporary China. Am Behav Sci 53(3):416\u2013433","journal-title":"Am Behav Sci"}],"container-title":["AI &amp; SOCIETY"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00146-021-01222-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00146-021-01222-z\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00146-021-01222-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,30]],"date-time":"2024-08-30T18:01:34Z","timestamp":1725040894000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00146-021-01222-z"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,12]]},"references-count":74,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["1222"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-021-01222-z","relation":{},"ISSN":["0951-5666","1435-5655"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0951-5666","type":"print"},{"value":"1435-5655","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,12]]},"assertion":[{"value":"13 January 2021","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 April 2021","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"12 May 2021","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}}]}}