{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T06:56:58Z","timestamp":1770706618254,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":112,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,28]],"date-time":"2022-06-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1656374400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,28]],"date-time":"2022-06-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1656374400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008332","name":"Universitat Ramon Llull","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008332","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008332","name":"Universitat Ramon Llull","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008332","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["AI &amp; Soc"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Among the myriad of technical approaches and abstract guidelines proposed to the topic of AI bias, there has been an urgent call to translate the principle of fairness into the operational AI reality with the involvement of social sciences specialists to analyse the context of specific types of bias, since there is not a generalizable solution. This article offers an interdisciplinary contribution to the topic of AI and societal bias, in particular against the poor, providing a conceptual framework of the issue and a tailor-made model from which meaningful data are obtained using Natural Language Processing word vectors in pretrained Google Word2Vec, Twitter and Wikipedia GloVe word embeddings. The results of the study offer the first set of data that evidences the existence of bias against the poor and suggest that Google Word2vec shows a higher degree of bias when the terms are related to beliefs, whereas bias is higher in Twitter GloVe when the terms express behaviour. This article contributes to the body of work on bias, both from and AI and a social sciences perspective, by providing evidence of a transversal aggravating factor for historical types of discrimination. The evidence of bias against the poor also has important consequences in terms of human development, since it often leads to discrimination, which constitutes an obstacle for the effectiveness of poverty reduction policies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-022-01494-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,28]],"date-time":"2022-06-28T06:03:53Z","timestamp":1656396233000},"page":"617-632","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Are AI systems biased against the poor? A machine learning analysis using Word2Vec and GloVe embeddings"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"39","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8232-3131","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Georgina","family":"Curto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6578-071X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mario Fernando","family":"Jojoa Acosta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0941-734X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Flavio","family":"Comim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9356-1186","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bego\u00f1a","family":"Garcia-Zapirain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"1494_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21742\/IJHIT.2020.13.1.03","author":"AC Adamuthe","year":"2020","unstructured":"Adamuthe AC (2020) Improved text classification using long short-term memory and word embedding technique. Int J Hybrid Inf Technol.\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21742\/IJHIT.2020.13.1.03","journal-title":"Int J Hybrid Inf Technol"},{"key":"1494_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/SSRN.3569083","author":"N Aggarwal","year":"2020","unstructured":"Aggarwal N (2020) The norms of algorithmic credit scoring. SSRN Electron J. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/SSRN.3569083","journal-title":"SSRN Electron J"},{"key":"1494_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1257\/AER.20162015","volume":"108","author":"A Alesina","year":"2018","unstructured":"Alesina A, Stantcheva S, Teso E (2018) Intergenerational mobility and preferences for redistribution. Am Econ Rev 108:521\u2013554. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1257\/AER.20162015","journal-title":"Am Econ Rev"},{"key":"1494_CR4","volume-title":"Fighting poverty in the US and Europe","author":"A Alessina","year":"2013","unstructured":"Alessina A, Glaeser EL (2013) Fighting poverty in the US and Europe. Oxford University Press, Oxford"},{"key":"1494_CR5","unstructured":"Algorithm W (2021) AI Ethics Guidelines Global Inventory. In: Algorithm Watch. https:\/\/inventory.algorithmwatch.org\/. Accessed 4 Dec 2021"},{"key":"1494_CR6","volume-title":"Is China Beating the U.S. to AI Supremacy?","author":"G Allison","year":"2019","unstructured":"Allison G, Schmidt E (2019) Is China beating the U.S. to AI supremacy? The National Interest"},{"key":"1494_CR7","volume-title":"The nature of prejudice","author":"GW Allport","year":"1954","unstructured":"Allport GW (1954) The nature of prejudice. Basic Books"},{"key":"1494_CR8","unstructured":"Almeida F, Xex\u00e9o G (2019) Word Embeddings: a survey. https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1901.09069v1. Accessed 16 Jan 2022"},{"key":"1494_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1086\/233897\/0","volume":"109","author":"ES Anderson","year":"1999","unstructured":"Anderson ES (1999) What is the point of equality? Ethics 109:287\u2013337. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1086\/233897\/0","journal-title":"Ethics"},{"key":"1494_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1007\/S12115-021-00592-W","volume":"58","author":"M Anshari","year":"2021","unstructured":"Anshari M, Almunawar MN, Masri M, Hrdy M (2021) Financial technology with AI-enabled and ethical challenges. Society 58:189\u2013195. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/S12115-021-00592-W","journal-title":"Society"},{"key":"1494_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/0162-895X.00248","author":"LD Applebaum","year":"2001","unstructured":"Applebaum LD (2001) The influence of perceived deservingness on policy decisions regarding aid to the poor. Polit Psychol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/0162-895X.00248","journal-title":"Polit Psychol"},{"key":"1494_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9760.00037","volume":"5","author":"RJ Arneson","year":"1997","unstructured":"Arneson RJ (1997) Egalitarianism and the undeserving poor. J Polit Philos 5:327\u2013350","journal-title":"J Polit Philos"},{"key":"1494_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.12840\/ISSN.2255-4165.017","volume":"7","author":"CJ Beukeboom","year":"2019","unstructured":"Beukeboom CJ, Burgers C (2019) How stereotypes are shared through language: a review and introduction of the Social Categories and Stereotypes Communication (SCSC) framework. Rev Commun Res 7:1\u201337. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12840\/ISSN.2255-4165.017","journal-title":"Rev Commun Res"},{"key":"1494_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Blodgett SL, Barocas S, III HD, Wallach H (2020) Language (technology) is power: a critical survey of \u201cbias\u201d in NLP. ACL anthology. In: Proceedings of the 8th annual meeting of the association of computational linguistics, pp  5454\u20135476. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/V1\/2020.ACL-MAIN.485","DOI":"10.18653\/V1\/2020.ACL-MAIN.485"},{"key":"1494_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1162\/tacl_a_00051","volume":"5","author":"P Bojanowski","year":"2016","unstructured":"Bojanowski P, Grave E, Joulin A, Mikolov T (2016) Enriching word vectors with subword information. Trans Assoc Comput Linguist 5:135\u2013146. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/tacl_a_00051","journal-title":"Trans Assoc Comput Linguist"},{"key":"1494_CR16","unstructured":"Bolukbasi T, Chang K-W, Saligrama V, et al (2016) Man is to Computer Programmer as Woman is to Homemaker? Debiasing Word Embeddings. arXiv:1607.06520v1"},{"key":"1494_CR17","volume-title":"Distinction: a social critique of the judgement of taste\/Pierre Bourdieu; translated by Richard Nice, with a new introduction by Tony Bennett","author":"P Bourdieu","year":"2010","unstructured":"Bourdieu P (2010) Distinction: a social critique of the judgement of taste. Routledge Classics"},{"key":"1494_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780190088583.001.0001","volume-title":"The brussels effect: how the European Union rules the world","author":"A Bradford","year":"2020","unstructured":"Bradford A (2020) The brussels effect: how the European Union rules the world. Oxford University Press"},{"key":"1494_CR19","volume-title":"Notes from the AI frontier: tackling bias in AI (and in humans)","author":"A By","year":"2019","unstructured":"By A, Silberg J, Manyika J (2019) Notes from the AI frontier: tackling bias in AI (and in humans). McKinsey Global Institute"},{"issue":"6334","key":"1494_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aal4230","volume":"356","author":"A Caliskan","year":"2017","unstructured":"Caliskan A, Bryson JJ, Narayanan A (2017) Semantics derived automatically from language corpora contain human-like biases. Science 356(6334):183\u2013186. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.aal4230","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"1494_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Camacho-Collados J, Pilehvar MT (2020) Embeddings in natural language processing. ACL anthology. In: Proceedings of the 28th international conference on computational linguistics, pp 10\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/V1\/2020.COLING-TUTORIALS.2","DOI":"10.18653\/V1\/2020.COLING-TUTORIALS.2"},{"key":"1494_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.3389\/FRAI.2020.00034\/BIBTEX","volume":"3","author":"D Card","year":"2020","unstructured":"Card D, Smith NA (2020) On consequentialism and fairness. Front Artif Intell 3:34. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/FRAI.2020.00034\/BIBTEX","journal-title":"Front Artif Intell"},{"key":"1494_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.1093\/QJE\/QJU022","volume":"129","author":"R Chetty","year":"2014","unstructured":"Chetty R, Hendren N, Kline P et al (2014) Where is the land of opportunity? The geography of intergenerational mobility in the United States. Q J Econ 129:1553\u20131623. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/QJE\/QJU022","journal-title":"Q J Econ"},{"key":"1494_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3633","DOI":"10.1609\/AAAI.V34I04.5771","volume":"34","author":"S Chiappa","year":"2020","unstructured":"Chiappa S, Jiang R, Stepleton T et al (2020) A general approach to fairness with optimal transport. Proc AAAI Conf Artif Intell 34:3633\u20133640. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1609\/AAAI.V34I04.5771","journal-title":"Proc AAAI Conf Artif Intell"},{"key":"1494_CR25","volume-title":"The multi-dimensions of aporophobia","author":"F Comim","year":"2019","unstructured":"Comim F, Borsi MT, Valerio Mendoza O (2019) The multi-dimensions of aporophobia. MPRA"},{"key":"1494_CR26","volume-title":"Aporofobia, el rechazo al pobre","author":"A Cortina","year":"2017","unstructured":"Cortina A (2017) Aporofobia, el rechazo al pobre. PAIDOS, Barcelona"},{"key":"1494_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.2307\/1229039","volume":"43","author":"K Crenshaw","year":"1991","unstructured":"Crenshaw K (1991) Stanford law review mapping the margins: intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Source Stanford Law Rev 43:1241\u20131299","journal-title":"Source Stanford Law Rev"},{"key":"1494_CR28","unstructured":"De Vynck G (2021) Autonomous weapons already exist and are playing a role on battlefields like Libya and Armenia - The Washington Post. In: Washington Post. https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/technology\/2021\/07\/07\/ai-weapons-us-military\/. Accessed 5 Feb 2022"},{"key":"1494_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dwork C, Hardt M, Pitassi T, et al (2011) Fairness Through Awareness. arXiv:1104.393","DOI":"10.1145\/2090236.2090255"},{"key":"1494_CR30","volume-title":"Digital media ethics","author":"C Ess","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ess C (2020) Digital media ethics. Wiley"},{"key":"1494_CR31","volume-title":"Automating inequality. How high-tech tools profile police and punish the poor","author":"V Eubanks","year":"2018","unstructured":"Eubanks V (2018) Automating inequality. How high-tech tools profile police and punish the poor. St. Martin\u2019s Press"},{"key":"1494_CR32","unstructured":"European Commission (2021) Artificial Intelligence Act. Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and the Council laying down harmonised rules on Artificial Intelligence (Artificial Intelligence Act) and amending certain Union legislative acts. EUR-Lex"},{"key":"1494_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1080\/02589340903017932","volume":"35","author":"D Everatt","year":"2009","unstructured":"Everatt D (2009) The undeserving poor: poverty and the politics of service delivery in the poorest nodes of South Africa. Politikon 35:293\u2013319","journal-title":"Politikon"},{"key":"1494_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ACPROF:OSO\/9780199812141.001.0001","author":"J Fishkin","year":"2014","unstructured":"Fishkin J (2014) Bottlenecks. Bottlenecks. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ACPROF:OSO\/9780199812141.001.0001","journal-title":"Bottlenecks"},{"key":"1494_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-04093-6","author":"L Floridi","year":"2015","unstructured":"Floridi L (2015) The onlife manifesto: being human in a hyperconnected era. Onlife Manif Being Hum a Hyperconnected Era. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-04093-6","journal-title":"Onlife Manif Being Hum a Hyperconnected Era"},{"issue":"32","key":"1494_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/S13347-019-00354-X","volume":"322","author":"L Floridi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Floridi L (2019a) Translating principles into practices of digital ethics: five risks of being unethical. Philos Technol 322(32):185\u2013193. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/S13347-019-00354-X","journal-title":"Philos Technol"},{"issue":"32","key":"1494_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/S13347-019-00354-X","volume":"322","author":"L Floridi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Floridi L (2019b) Translating principles into practices of digital ethics: five risks of being unethical. Philos Technol 322(32):185\u2013193. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/S13347-019-00354-X","journal-title":"Philos Technol"},{"key":"1494_CR38","volume-title":"The rise and decline of patriarchal systems. An intersectional political economy","author":"N Folbre","year":"2021","unstructured":"Folbre N (2021) The rise and decline of patriarchal systems. An intersectional political economy. Verso"},{"key":"1494_CR39","volume-title":"Redistribution or recognition? A political-philosophical exchange","author":"N Fraser","year":"2003","unstructured":"Fraser N, Honneth A (2003) Redistribution or recognition? A political-philosophical exchange. Verso Books"},{"key":"1494_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1037\/A0022327","volume":"118","author":"JB Freeman","year":"2011","unstructured":"Freeman JB, Ambady N (2011) A dynamic interactive theory of person construal. Psychol Rev 118:247\u2013279. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/A0022327","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"key":"1494_CR41","volume-title":"Hello world: being human in the age of algorithms","author":"H Fry","year":"2018","unstructured":"Fry H (2018) Hello world: being human in the age of algorithms. Penguin"},{"key":"1494_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Garga N, Schiebingerb L, Jurafskyc D, Zou J (2018) Word embeddings quantify 100 years of gender and ethnic stereotypes. In: Proceedings of the national academy of sciences (PNAS). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1720347115","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1720347115"},{"key":"1494_CR43","volume-title":"Whoever leads in artificial intelligence in 2030 will rule the world until 2100","author":"I Gill","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gill I (2020) Whoever leads in artificial intelligence in 2030 will rule the world until 2100. Brookings"},{"key":"1494_CR44","volume-title":"Stigma notes on the management of spoiled identity","author":"E Goffman","year":"1963","unstructured":"Goffman E (1963) Stigma notes on the management of spoiled identity. Simon & Schuster"},{"key":"1494_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3351095","author":"B Green","year":"2020","unstructured":"Green B (2020) Algorithmic realism: expanding the boundaries of algorithmic thought. In: Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Fairness Accountability and Transparency.\u00a0\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3351095","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Fairness Accountability and Transparency"},{"key":"1494_CR46","unstructured":"Green B, Hu L (2018) The Myth in the Methodology: Towards a Recontextualization of Fairness in Machine Learning. Mach Learn Debates Work 35th Int Conf Mach Learn"},{"key":"1494_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Green B, Chen Y (2019) Disparate interactions: An algorithm-in-the-loop analysis of fairness in risk assessments. FAT* 2019 - Proc 2019 Conf Fairness, Accountability, Transpar 90\u201399. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3287560.3287563","DOI":"10.1145\/3287560.3287563"},{"key":"1494_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-01171-0_12","volume":"865","author":"L Guti\u00e9rrez","year":"2019","unstructured":"Guti\u00e9rrez L, Keith B (2019) A systematic literature review on word embeddings. Adv Intell Syst Comput 865:132\u2013141. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-01171-0_12","journal-title":"Adv Intell Syst Comput"},{"key":"1494_CR49","volume-title":"Moral consciousness and communicative action","author":"J Habermas","year":"1990","unstructured":"Habermas J (1990) Moral consciousness and communicative action. Polity Press, London"},{"key":"1494_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.54648\/COLA2018095","volume":"55","author":"P Hacker","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hacker P (2018) Teaching fairness to artificial intelligence: existing and novel strategies against algorithmic discrimination under EU law. Common Market Law Review. 55:1143\u20131186","journal-title":"Common Mark Law Rev"},{"key":"1494_CR51","unstructured":"Hardt M, Price E, Srebro N (2016) Equality of opportunity in supervised learning. ArXiv ID: 1610.02413v1"},{"key":"1494_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1080\/14498596.2016.1138246","volume":"61","author":"MV Hauge","year":"2016","unstructured":"Hauge MV, Stevenson MD, Rossmo DK, Le Comber SC (2016) Tagging Banksy: using geographic profiling to investigate a modern art mystery. J Spacial Sci 61:185\u2013190. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/14498596.2016.1138246","journal-title":"J Spacial Sci"},{"key":"1494_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511808012","volume-title":"Elements of the philosophy of right","author":"GWF Hegel","year":"1991","unstructured":"Hegel GWF (1991) Elements of the philosophy of right. Oxford\u2019s Worlds Classics"},{"key":"1494_CR54","volume-title":"High-Level Expert Group on Artificial Intelligence, EU - Ethics guidelines for trustworthy AI","author":"HLEGAI","year":"2019","unstructured":"HLEGAI (2019) High-Level Expert Group on Artificial Intelligence, EU - Ethics guidelines for trustworthy AI. European Commission"},{"issue":"7","key":"1494_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"900","DOI":"10.1080\/1369118X.2019.1573912","volume":"22","author":"AL Hoffmann","year":"2019","unstructured":"Hoffmann AL (2019) Where fairness fails: data, algorithms, and the limits of antidiscrimination discourse. Inf Commun Soc 22(7):900\u2013915.\u00a0\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/1369118X.2019.1573912","journal-title":"Inf Commun Soc"},{"key":"1494_CR56","volume-title":"The struggle for recognition","author":"A Honneth","year":"1996","unstructured":"Honneth A (1996) The struggle for recognition. Polity Press"},{"key":"1494_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.51593\/20190047","author":"A Imbrie","year":"2020","unstructured":"Imbrie A, Kania E, Laskai L (2020) The question of comparative advantage in artificial intelligence: enduring strengths and emerging challenges for the United States. Cent Secur Emerg Technol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.51593\/20190047","journal-title":"Cent Secur Emerg Technol"},{"key":"1494_CR58","unstructured":"Jiang L, Hwang JD, Bhagavatula C et al (2021) Delphi: Towards Machine Ethics and Norms"},{"key":"1494_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Joseph K, Morgan JH (2020) When do word embeddings accurately reflect surveys on our beliefs about people? ACL Anthology. In: Proceedings of the 58th annual meeting of the association of computational linguistics, pp 4392\u20134415. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/2020.acl-main.405","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2020.acl-main.405"},{"key":"1494_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1565","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444819826402","volume":"21","author":"G Kostka","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kostka G (2019) China\u2019s social credit systems and public opinion: explaining high levels of approval. New Med Soc 21:1565\u20131593. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1461444819826402","journal-title":"New Med Soc"},{"key":"1494_CR61","first-page":"165","volume-title":"Accountable algorithms","author":"J Kroll","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kroll J, Huey J, Barocas S, et al (2017) Accountable algorithms. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, p 165"},{"key":"1494_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1038\/D41586-020-00274-3","volume":"578","author":"MJ Kusner","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kusner MJ, Loftus JR (2020) The long road to fairer algorithms. Nature 578:34\u201336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/D41586-020-00274-3","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"1494_CR63","unstructured":"Lamo de Espinosa E (2004) Bajo puertas de fuego: el nuevo desorden internacional. Taurus"},{"key":"1494_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/SSRN.3559407","author":"MSA Lee","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lee MSA, Floridi L (2020) Algorithmic fairness in mortgage lending: from absolute conditions to relational trade-offs. SSRN Electron J. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/SSRN.3559407","journal-title":"SSRN Electron J"},{"key":"1494_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2601(08)60272-5","volume":"31","author":"A Maass","year":"1999","unstructured":"Maass A (1999) Linguistic intergroup bias: stereotype perpetuation through language. Adv Exp Soc Psychol 31:79\u2013121. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0065-2601(08)60272-5","journal-title":"Adv Exp Soc Psychol"},{"key":"1494_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Manzini T, Chong LY, Black AW, Tsvetkov Y (2019) Black is to Criminal as Caucasian is to Police: Detecting and Removing Multiclass Bias in Word Embeddings. NAACL HLT 2019 - 2019 Conf North Am Chapter Assoc Comput Linguist Hum Lang Technol - Proc Conf 1:615\u2013621. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/V1\/N19-1062","DOI":"10.18653\/V1\/N19-1062"},{"key":"1494_CR67","unstructured":"Merler M, Ratha N, Feris RS, Smith JR (2019) Diversity in faces. arXiv:1901.10436. Accessed 12 June 2022"},{"key":"1494_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Mikolov T, Chen K, Corrado G, Dean J (2013a) Efficient estimation of word representations in vector space. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.1301.3781. Accessed 10 Dec 2021","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.1301.3781"},{"key":"1494_CR69","unstructured":"Mikolov T, Sutskever I, Chen K, et al (2013b) Distributed Representations of Words and Phrases and their Compositionality. arXiv:1310.4546"},{"key":"1494_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2053951716679679","author":"BD Mittelstadt","year":"2016","unstructured":"Mittelstadt BD, Allo P, Taddeo M et al (2016) The ethics of algorithms: mapping the debate. Big Data and Society. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/2053951716679679. Accessed 03 Dec 2021","journal-title":"Big Data Soc"},{"key":"1494_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1007\/S11023-021-09563-W","volume":"31","author":"J Morley","year":"2021","unstructured":"Morley J, Elhalal A, Garcia F et al (2021a) Ethics as a service: a pragmatic operationalisation of AI ethics. Minds Mach 31:239\u2013256. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/S11023-021-09563-W","journal-title":"Minds Mach"},{"key":"1494_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/S00146-021-01308-8","author":"J Morley","year":"2021","unstructured":"Morley J, Kinsey L, Elhalal A et al (2021b) Operationalising AI ethics: barriers, enablers and next steps. AI Soc. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/S00146-021-01308-8","journal-title":"AI Soc"},{"key":"1494_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674978256","volume-title":"The age of responsibility: luck, choice and the welfare state","author":"Y Mounk","year":"2017","unstructured":"Mounk Y (2017) The age of responsibility: luck, choice and the welfare state. Cambridge University Press"},{"key":"1494_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Nadeem M, Bethke A, Reddy S (2020) StereoSet: measuring stereotypical bias in pretrained language models. ACL Anthology. In: Proceedings of the 59th annual meeting of the association for the computational linguistics and the 11th international joint conference on natural language processing. Volume 1 (long papers), pp 5356\u20135371. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/2021.acl-long.416","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2021.acl-long.416"},{"key":"1494_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.3898\/136266209787778920","volume":"41","author":"H Nunn","year":"2009","unstructured":"Nunn H, Biressi A (2009) The undeserving poor. Soundings 41:107\u2013116.\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3898\/136266209787778920","journal-title":"Soundings"},{"key":"1494_CR76","volume-title":"Weapons of math destruction","author":"C O\u2019Neal","year":"2016","unstructured":"O\u2019Neal C (2016) Weapons of math destruction. Penguin Random House"},{"key":"1494_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1787\/9789264301085-en","volume-title":"A broken social elevator? How to promote social mobility","author":"OECD","year":"2018","unstructured":"OECD (2018) A broken social elevator? How to promote social mobility. OECD"},{"key":"1494_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1111\/josi.12427","volume":"77","author":"S Paolini","year":"2021","unstructured":"Paolini S, White F, Tropp L et al (2021) Intergroup contact research in the 21st century. Lessons learned and forward progress if we remain open. J Soc Issues 77:11\u201337","journal-title":"J Soc Issues"},{"key":"1494_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pennington J, Socher R, Manning CD (2014) GloVe: global vectors for word representation. In: Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP). ACL Anthology. In: Proceedings of the 2014 conference on empirical methods in natural language processing, pp 1532\u20131543","DOI":"10.3115\/v1\/D14-1162"},{"key":"1494_CR80","volume-title":"Contextual social psychology: reanalyzing prejudice, voting, and intergroup contact","author":"TF Pettigrew","year":"2020","unstructured":"Pettigrew TF (2020) Contextual social psychology: reanalyzing prejudice, voting, and intergroup contact. American Psychological Association."},{"key":"1494_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1093\/QJE\/QJX043","volume":"133","author":"T Piketty","year":"2018","unstructured":"Piketty T, Saez E, Zucman G et al (2018) Distributional national accounts: methods and estimates for the United States. Q J Econ 133:553\u2013609. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/QJE\/QJX043","journal-title":"Q J Econ"},{"key":"1494_CR82","unstructured":"Poitras L (2014) Citizenfour. https:\/\/www.filmaffinity.com\/es\/film740797.html. Accessed 24 Nov 2021"},{"key":"1494_CR83","unstructured":"Radford A, Wu J, Child R et al (2019) Language models are unsupervised multitask learners. Technical Report. Open AI"},{"key":"1494_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.1177\/008124630703700410","volume":"37","author":"S Reicher","year":"2007","unstructured":"Reicher S (2007) Rethinking the paradigm of prejudice. South African J Psychol 37:820\u2013834. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/008124630703700410","journal-title":"South African J Psychol"},{"key":"1494_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5040\/9781350219878","volume-title":"Elite perceptions on poverty and inequality","author":"E Reis","year":"2005","unstructured":"Reis E, Moore M, Clarke G et al (2005) Elite perceptions on poverty and inequality. Zed Books, London"},{"key":"1494_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1146\/ANNUREV.SOC.25.1.191","volume":"25","author":"CL Ridgeway","year":"1999","unstructured":"Ridgeway CL, Smith-Lovin L (1999) The gender system and interaction. Annu Rev Sociol 25:191\u2013216. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/ANNUREV.SOC.25.1.191","journal-title":"Annu Rev Sociol"},{"key":"1494_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/SSRN.3851523","author":"H Roberts","year":"2021","unstructured":"Roberts H, Cowls J, Hine E et al (2021) Achieving a \u2018Good AI Society\u2019: comparing the aims and progress of the EU and the US. SSRN Electron J. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/SSRN.3851523","journal-title":"SSRN Electron J"},{"key":"1494_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Rudinger R, Naradowsky J, Leonard B, Durme B Van (2018) Gender Bias in Coreference Resolution. NAACL HLT 2018 - 2018 Conf North Am Chapter Assoc Comput Linguist Hum Lang Technol - Proc Conf 2:8\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/V1\/N18-2002","DOI":"10.18653\/V1\/N18-2002"},{"key":"1494_CR89","unstructured":"Sampedro J (1972) Conciencia del subdesarrollo. Alianza Editorial"},{"key":"1494_CR90","volume-title":"The tyranny of merit","author":"MJ Sandel","year":"2020","unstructured":"Sandel MJ (2020) The tyranny of merit. Penguin Random House"},{"key":"1494_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sap M, Gabriel S, Qin L et al (2020) Social Bias Frames: Reasoning about Social and Power Implications of Language. Association of Computational Linguistics. In: Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association of Computational Linguistics, pp 5477\u20135490. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/V1\/2020.ACL-MAIN.486","DOI":"10.18653\/V1\/2020.ACL-MAIN.486"},{"key":"1494_CR92","unstructured":"SCMP Research (2020) China AI Report. In: World Sci. https:\/\/www.worldscientific.com\/page\/china-ai-report. Accessed 5 Feb 2022"},{"key":"1494_CR93","volume-title":"Development as freedom","author":"A Sen","year":"2001","unstructured":"Sen A (2001) Development as freedom. Oxford University Press"},{"key":"1494_CR105","unstructured":"Smith M, Patil DJ, Mu\u00f1oz C (2016) Big risks, Big opportunities: the intersection of big data and civil rights. The White House Blog. https:\/\/obamawhitehouse.archives.gov\/blog\/2016\/05\/04\/big-risks-big-opportunities-intersection-big-data-and-civil-rights. Accessed 13 June 2022."},{"key":"1494_CR94","unstructured":"Talmor A, Yoran O, Le Bras R, et al (2021) CommonsenseQA 2.0: Exposing the Limits of AI through Gamification. Thirty-fifth Conf Neural Inf Process Syst Datasets Benchmarks Track (Round 1), 2021"},{"key":"1494_CR95","volume-title":"Multiculturalism and \u201cthe politics of recognition\u201d","author":"C Taylor","year":"1931","unstructured":"Taylor C (1931) Multiculturalism and \u201cthe politics of recognition.\u201d Princeton University Press"},{"key":"1494_CR96","volume-title":"El juego global","author":"J Tortosa","year":"2001","unstructured":"Tortosa J (2001) El juego global. Maldesarrollo y pobreza en el capitalismo mundial, Icaria"},{"key":"1494_CR97","unstructured":"Townson S (2020) AI Can Make Bank Loans More Fair. In: Harv. Bus. Rev. https:\/\/hbr.org\/2020\/11\/ai-can-make-bank-loans-more-fair. Accessed 5 Feb 2022"},{"key":"1494_CR98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/S00146-021-01154-8","volume":"1","author":"A Tsamados","year":"2021","unstructured":"Tsamados A, Aggarwal N, Cowls J et al (2021a) The ethics of algorithms: key problems and solutions. AI Soc 1:1\u201316. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/S00146-021-01154-8","journal-title":"AI Soc"},{"key":"1494_CR99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/S00146-021-01154-8","volume":"1","author":"A Tsamados","year":"2021","unstructured":"Tsamados A, Aggarwal N, Cowls J et al (2021b) The ethics of algorithms: key problems and solutions. AI Soc 1:1\u201316. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/S00146-021-01154-8","journal-title":"AI Soc"},{"key":"1494_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Vakkuri V, Kemell KK, Jantunen M, Abrahamsson P (2020) \u201cThis is Just a Prototype\u201d: How Ethics Are Ignored in Software Startup-Like Environments. Lect Notes Bus Inf Process 383 LNBIP:195\u2013210. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-49392-9_13","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-49392-9_13"},{"key":"1494_CR101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/S00146-021-01330-W","author":"N Vall\u00e8s-Peris","year":"2021","unstructured":"Vall\u00e8s-Peris N, Dom\u00e8nech M (2021) Caring in the in-between: a proposal to introduce responsible AI and robotics to healthcare. AI Soc. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/S00146-021-01330-W","journal-title":"AI Soc"},{"issue":"11","key":"1494_CR102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-14108-y","volume":"111","author":"R Vinuesa","year":"2020","unstructured":"Vinuesa R, Azizpour H, Leite I et al (2020) The role of artificial intelligence in achieving the sustainable development goals. Nat Commun 111(11):1\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41467-019-14108-y","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"1494_CR103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/BMJ.L886","author":"DS Watson","year":"2019","unstructured":"Watson DS, Krutzinna J, Bruce IN et al (2019) Clinical applications of machine learning algorithms: beyond the black box. BMJ. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/BMJ.L886","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"1494_CR104","volume-title":"Discriminating systems gender, race, and power in AI","author":"SM West","year":"2019","unstructured":"West SM, Whittaker M, Crawford K (2019) Discriminating systems gender, race, and power in AI. AI Now Institute"},{"key":"1494_CR106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5334\/JOPD.AC","volume":"2","author":"K Xu","year":"2014","unstructured":"Xu K, Nosek B, Greenwald AG (2014) Data from the race implicit association test on the project implicit demo website. J Open Psychol Data 2:e3. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5334\/JOPD.AC","journal-title":"J Open Psychol Data"},{"key":"1494_CR0107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-3287(01)00033-7","volume":"34","author":"L Yapa","year":"2002","unstructured":"Yapa L (2002) How the discipline of geography exacerbates poverty in the Third World. Futures 34:33\u201346","journal-title":"Futures"},{"key":"1494_CR107","volume-title":"The rise of the meritocracy (classics in organization and management series)","author":"M Young","year":"1964","unstructured":"Young M (1964) The rise of the meritocracy (classics in organization and management series). Routledge"},{"key":"1494_CR108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1007\/S00146-021-01153-9","volume":"36","author":"M Zajko","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zajko M (2021) Conservative AI and social inequality: conceptualizing alternatives to bias through social theory. AI Soc 36:1047\u20131056. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/S00146-021-01153-9","journal-title":"AI Soc"},{"key":"1494_CR109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.3390\/INFORMATICS8030048","volume":"8","author":"MV Zetterholm","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zetterholm MV, Lin Y, Jokela P (2021) Digital contact tracing applications during COVID-19: a scoping review about public acceptance. Informatics 8:48. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/INFORMATICS8030048","journal-title":"Informatics"},{"key":"1494_CR110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2021.findings-acl.364","author":"J Zhao","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zhao J, Khashabi D, Khot T et al (2021) Ethical-advice taker: do language models understand natural language interventions? arXiv. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/2021.findings-acl.364","journal-title":"arXiv"},{"key":"1494_CR111","volume-title":"The age of surveillance capitalism","author":"S Zuboff","year":"2019","unstructured":"Zuboff S (2019) The age of surveillance capitalism. Profile Books"}],"container-title":["AI &amp; SOCIETY"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00146-022-01494-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00146-022-01494-z\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00146-022-01494-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,10]],"date-time":"2024-04-10T12:08:35Z","timestamp":1712750915000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00146-022-01494-z"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,28]]},"references-count":112,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]}},"alternative-id":["1494"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-022-01494-z","relation":{},"ISSN":["0951-5666","1435-5655"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0951-5666","type":"print"},{"value":"1435-5655","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,28]]},"assertion":[{"value":"7 February 2022","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"28 April 2022","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"28 June 2022","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"15 September 2022","order":4,"name":"change_date","label":"Change Date","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Update","order":5,"name":"change_type","label":"Change Type","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Missing Open Access funding information has been added in the Funding Note.","order":6,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}]}}