{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T12:51:38Z","timestamp":1777639898041,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,19]],"date-time":"2024-02-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1708300800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,19]],"date-time":"2024-02-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1708300800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010418","name":"Defence Science and Technology Laboratory","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R-DST-TFS\/D2013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R-DST-TFS\/D2013"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010418","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["AI &amp; Soc"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>The rapid diffusion of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies in the defence domain raises challenges for the ethical governance of these systems. A recent shift from the <jats:italic>what<\/jats:italic> to the <jats:italic>how<\/jats:italic> of AI ethics sees a nascent body of literature published by defence organisations focussed on guidance to implement AI ethics principles. These efforts have neglected a crucial intermediate step between principles and guidance concerning the elicitation of ethical requirements for specifying the guidance. In this article, we outline the key normative choices and corresponding tradeoffs that are involved in specifying guidance for the implementation of AI ethics principles in the defence domain. These correspond to: the AI lifecycle model used; the scope of stakeholder involvement; the accountability goals chosen; the choice of auditing requirements; and the choice of mechanisms for transparency and traceability. We provide initial recommendations for navigating these tradeoffs and highlight the importance of a pro-ethical institutional culture.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-024-01866-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,19]],"date-time":"2024-02-19T17:02:03Z","timestamp":1708362123000},"page":"185-198","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Ethical governance of artificial intelligence for defence: normative tradeoffs for principle to practice guidance"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"40","author":[{"given":"Alexander","family":"Blanchard","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christopher","family":"Thomas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1181-649X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariarosaria","family":"Taddeo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"1866_CR1","unstructured":"Ada Lovelace Institute (2022) algorithmic impact assessment: a case study in healthcare. London: Ada Lovelace Institute. https:\/\/www.adalovelaceinstitute.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/02\/Algorithmic-impact-assessment-a-case-study-in-healthcare.pdf.  Accessed 18 Dec 2023"},{"key":"1866_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-67280-9_9","volume-title":"Privacy technologies and policy. Lecture Notes in Computer Science","author":"M Alshammari","year":"2017","unstructured":"Alshammari M, Simpson A (2017) Towards a Principled Approach for Engineering Privacy by Design. In: Schweighofer E, Leitold H, Mitrakas A, Rannenberg K (eds) Privacy technologies and policy. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 10518. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 161\u2013177. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-67280-9_9"},{"key":"1866_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Aquin M, Troullinou P, O\u2019Connor NE, Cullen A, Faller G, Holden L (2018) Towards an \u201cEthics by Design\u201d methodology for AI research projects. In: Proceedings of the 2018 AAAI\/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society, pp 54\u201359. New Orleans LA USA: ACM. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3278721.3278765.","DOI":"10.1145\/3278721.3278765"},{"issue":"3","key":"1866_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-021-00084-x","volume":"2","author":"J Ayling","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ayling J, Chapman A (2022) Putting AI ethics to work: are the tools fit for purpose? AI and Ethics 2(3):405\u2013429. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s43681-021-00084-x","journal-title":"AI and Ethics"},{"key":"1866_CR5","volume-title":"Principles of biomedical ethics","author":"TL Beauchamp","year":"2013","unstructured":"Beauchamp TL, Childress JF (2013) Principles of biomedical ethics, 7th edn. Oxford University Press, New York","edition":"7"},{"issue":"1","key":"1866_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1007\/s44206-023-00036-4","volume":"2","author":"A Blanchard","year":"2023","unstructured":"Blanchard A, Taddeo M (2023) The ethics of artificial intelligence for intelligence analysis: a review of the key challenges with recommendations. Digital Society 2(1):12. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44206-023-00036-4","journal-title":"Digital Society"},{"issue":"5\u20136","key":"1866_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1080\/03071847.2019.1694260","volume":"164","author":"J Butcher","year":"2019","unstructured":"Butcher J, Beridze I (2019) What is the state of artificial intelligence governance globally? The RUSI Journal 164(5\u20136):88\u201396. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/03071847.2019.1694260","journal-title":"The RUSI Journal"},{"key":"1866_CR8","volume-title":"The AI wave in defence innovation: assessing military artificial intelligence strategies, capabilities, and trajectories","author":"C Canca","year":"2023","unstructured":"Canca C (2023) AI ethics and governance in defence innovation: implementating AI ethics framework. In: Raska M, Bitzinger RA (eds) The AI wave in defence innovation: assessing military artificial intelligence strategies, capabilities, and trajectories. Routledge, London"},{"key":"1866_CR9","unstructured":"Centre for Data Ethics and Innovation (2021) The role of independence in assuring AI. AI Assurance Guide. 2021. https:\/\/cdeiuk.github.io\/ai-assurance-guide\/independence\/"},{"issue":"7","key":"1866_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.3390\/info12070275","volume":"12","author":"P Cihon","year":"2021","unstructured":"Cihon P, Schuett J, Baum SD (2021) Corporate governance of artificial intelligence in the public interest. Information 12(7):275. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/info12070275","journal-title":"Information"},{"key":"1866_CR11","unstructured":"Coldicutt R, Miller C (2019) People, power, and technology: the tech workers\u2019 View\u2019. London: Doteveryone. https:\/\/doteveryone.org.uk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/PeoplePowerTech_Doteveryone_May2019.pdf.  Accessed 18 Dec 2023"},{"key":"1866_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Costanza-Chock S, Raji ID, Buolamwini J (2022) Who Audits the Auditors? Recommendations from a Field Scan of the Algorithmic Auditing Ecosystem\u2019. In: 2022 ACM Conference on fairness, accountability, and transparency, pp 1571\u201383. Seoul Republic of Korea: ACM. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3531146.3533213","DOI":"10.1145\/3531146.3533213"},{"issue":"1","key":"1866_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1186\/s12910-015-0010-3","volume":"16","author":"R Davies","year":"2015","unstructured":"Davies R, Ives J, Dunn M (2015) A systematic review of empirical bioethics methodologies. BMC Med Ethics 16(1):15. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12910-015-0010-3","journal-title":"BMC Med Ethics"},{"key":"1866_CR14","volume-title":"Responsible artificial intelligence strategy and implementation pathway","author":"Department of Defense","year":"2022","unstructured":"Department of Defense (2022) Responsible artificial intelligence strategy and implementation pathway. Department of Defense"},{"key":"1866_CR15","volume-title":"\u2018A Method for Ethical AI in Defence.\u2019 DSTG-TR-3786","author":"K Devitt","year":"2020","unstructured":"Devitt K, Michael G, Scholz J, Bolia R (2020) \u2018A Method for Ethical AI in Defence.\u2019 DSTG-TR-3786. Australian Department of Defence, Canberra"},{"key":"1866_CR16","volume-title":"AI Principles: Recommendations on the Ethical Use of Artificial Intelligence by the Department of Defense","author":"DIB","year":"2019","unstructured":"DIB (2019) AI Principles: Recommendations on the Ethical Use of Artificial Intelligence by the Department of Defense. Defense Innovation Board"},{"key":"1866_CR17","unstructured":"DIB (2020) AI principles: recommendations on the ethical use of artificial intelligence by the Department of Defense-Supporting Document. Defense Innovation Board [DIB]. https:\/\/media.defense.gov\/2019\/Oct\/31\/2002204459\/-1\/-1\/0\/DIB_AI_PRINCIPLES_SUPPORTING_DOCUMENT.PDF"},{"key":"1866_CR18","unstructured":"DoD Responsible AI Working Council (2022) Responsible artificial intelligence strategy and implementation pathway"},{"issue":"1","key":"1866_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.2307\/258887","volume":"20","author":"T Donaldson","year":"1995","unstructured":"Donaldson T, Preston LE (1995) The Stakeholder Theory of the Corporation: Concepts, Evidence, and Implications. Acad Manag Rev 20(1):65\u201391","journal-title":"Acad Manag Rev"},{"key":"1866_CR20","unstructured":"Dunnmon J, Goodman B, Kirechu P, Smith C, Van Deusen A (2021) Responsible AI guidelines in practice: operationalizing DoD\u2019s ethical principles for AI. California: Defense Innovation Unit. https:\/\/assets.ctfassets.net\/3nanhbfkr0pc\/acoo1Fj5uungnGNPJ3QWy\/3a1dafd64f22efcf8f27380aafae9789\/2021_RAI_Report-v3.pdf.  Accessed 18 Dec 2023"},{"issue":"1","key":"1866_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-020-00011-6","volume":"1","author":"R Eitel-Porter","year":"2021","unstructured":"Eitel-Porter R (2021) Beyond the promise: implementing ethical AI. AI Ethics 1(1):73\u201380. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s43681-020-00011-6","journal-title":"AI Ethics"},{"issue":"2","key":"1866_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-019-00354-x","volume":"32","author":"L Floridi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Floridi L (2019) Translating principles into practices of digital ethics: five risks of being unethical. Philos Technol 32(2):185\u2013193. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13347-019-00354-x","journal-title":"Philos Technol"},{"key":"1866_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/99608f92.8cd550d1","author":"L Floridi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Floridi L, Cowls J (2019) A unified framework of five principles for AI in society. Harv Data Sci Rev. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/99608f92.8cd550d1","journal-title":"Harv Data Sci Rev"},{"key":"1866_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Floridi L, Holweg M, Taddeo M, Silva JA, M\u00f6kander J, Wen Y (2022) capAI - a procedure for conducting conformity assessment of AI systems in line with the EU artificial intelligence act. SSRN Electron J. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.4064091","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4064091"},{"issue":"3","key":"1866_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-019-09503-4","volume":"21","author":"La Fors","year":"2019","unstructured":"Fors La, Karolina BC, Keymolen E (2019) Reassessing values for emerging big data technologies: integrating design-based and application-based approaches. Ethics Inf Technol 21(3):209\u2013226. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10676-019-09503-4","journal-title":"Ethics Inf Technol"},{"issue":"S6","key":"1866_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1111\/1758-5899.12965","volume":"12","author":"S Fukuda-Parr","year":"2021","unstructured":"Fukuda-Parr S, Gibbons E (2021) Emerging consensus on \u201cEthical AI\u201d: human rights critique of stakeholder guidelines. Global Pol 12(S6):32\u201344. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1758-5899.12965","journal-title":"Global Pol"},{"issue":"6","key":"1866_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1109\/MIC.2017.4180835","volume":"21","author":"U Gasser","year":"2017","unstructured":"Gasser U, Almeida VAF (2017) A layered model for AI governance. IEEE Internet Comput 21(6):58\u201362. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/MIC.2017.4180835","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Comput"},{"issue":"4","key":"1866_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-021-00127-3","volume":"2","author":"I Georgieva","year":"2022","unstructured":"Georgieva I, Lazo C, Timan T, Fleur A, van Veenstra. (2022) From AI ethics principles to data science practice: a reflection and a gap analysis based on recent frameworks and practical experience. AI and Ethics 2(4):697\u2013711. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s43681-021-00127-3","journal-title":"AI and Ethics"},{"issue":"2","key":"1866_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x","volume":"26","author":"MJ Grant","year":"2009","unstructured":"Grant MJ, Booth A (2009) A typology of reviews: an analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies: a typology of reviews, Maria J. Grant Andrew Booth. Health Inform Libr J 26(2):91\u2013108. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x","journal-title":"Health Inform Libr J"},{"key":"1866_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grice HP (1975) Logic and conversation. In: Davidson D and Harman G (eds) The logic of grammar, pp 64\u201375","DOI":"10.1163\/9789004368811_003"},{"issue":"1","key":"1866_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/s11023-020-09517-8","volume":"30","author":"T Hagendorff","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hagendorff T (2020) The ethics of AI ethics: an evaluation of guidelines. Mind Mach 30(1):99\u2013120. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11023-020-09517-8","journal-title":"Mind Mach"},{"issue":"2","key":"1866_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1024834510939","volume":"36","author":"M Hajer","year":"2003","unstructured":"Hajer M (2003) Policy without polity? Policy analysis and the institutional void. Policy Sci 36(2):175\u2013195. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023\/A:1024834510939","journal-title":"Policy Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"1866_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-020-00008-1","volume":"1","author":"M Hickok","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hickok M (2021) Lessons learned from ai ethics principles for future actions. AI Ethics 1(1):41\u201347. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s43681-020-00008-1","journal-title":"AI Ethics"},{"key":"1866_CR33","unstructured":"High-Level Expert Group on Artificial Intelligence (2019).\u2018Ethics guidelines for trustworthy AI. Brussels: European Comission. https:\/\/www.aepd.es\/sites\/default\/files\/2019-12\/ai-ethics-guidelines.pdf.  Accessed 18 Dec 2023"},{"issue":"9","key":"1866_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1038\/s42256-019-0088-2","volume":"1","author":"A Jobin","year":"2019","unstructured":"Jobin A, Ienca M, Vayena E (2019) The Global Landscape of AI ethics guidelines. Nat Mach Intell 1(9):389\u2013399","journal-title":"Nat Mach Intell"},{"issue":"4","key":"1866_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1525\/jer.2009.4.4.3","volume":"4","author":"SYH Kim","year":"2009","unstructured":"Kim SYH, Wall IF, Stanczyk A, De Vries R (2009) Assessing the public\u2019s views in research ethics controversies: deliberative democracy and bioethics as natural allies. J Empir Res Hum Res Ethics 4(4):3\u201316. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1525\/jer.2009.4.4.3","journal-title":"J Empir Res Hum Res Ethics"},{"key":"1866_CR36","unstructured":"Kinder T (2023) silicon valley chiefs urge pentagon procurement overhaul. Financial Times, 26 June 2023, sec. Tech start-ups. https:\/\/www.ft.com\/content\/45da39f2-4e05-46f1-96f4-813fbba79b16.  Accessed 18 Dec 2023"},{"key":"1866_CR37","volume-title":"from principles to practice - an interdisciplinary framework to operationalise AI ethics","author":"T Krafft","year":"2020","unstructured":"Krafft T, Hauer M, Fetic L, Kaminski A, Puntschuh M, Otto P, Hubig C et al (2020) from principles to practice - an interdisciplinary framework to operationalise AI ethics. AI Ethics Impact Group"},{"issue":"6","key":"1866_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1109\/MSEC.2018.2875329","volume":"16","author":"JA Kroll","year":"2018","unstructured":"Kroll JA (2018) Data science data governance [AI Ethics]. IEEE Secur Priv 16(6):61\u201370. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/MSEC.2018.2875329","journal-title":"IEEE Secur Priv"},{"key":"1866_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kroll JA (2021) Outlining traceability: a principle for operationalizing accountability in computing systems. In: Proceedings of the 2021 ACM Conference on fairness, accountability, and transparency, 758\u201371. FAccT \u201921. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3442188.3445937.","DOI":"10.1145\/3442188.3445937"},{"key":"1866_CR40","volume-title":"Understanding artificial intelligence ethics and safety: A guide for the responsible design and implementation of AI systems in the public sector","author":"D Leslie","year":"2019","unstructured":"Leslie D (2019) Understanding artificial intelligence ethics and safety: A guide for the responsible design and implementation of AI systems in the public sector. The Alan Turing Institute, London"},{"issue":"4","key":"1866_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-022-00143-x","volume":"2","author":"M M\u00e4ntym\u00e4ki","year":"2022","unstructured":"M\u00e4ntym\u00e4ki M, Minkkinen M, Birkstedt T, Viljanen M (2022) Defining organizational AI governance. AI and Ethics 2(4):603\u2013609. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s43681-022-00143-x","journal-title":"AI and Ethics"},{"key":"1866_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"McNamara A, Smith J, Murphy-Hill E (2018) Does ACM\u2019s Code of ethics change ethical decision making in software development?\u2019 In: Proceedings of the 2018 26th ACM Joint Meeting on European Software Engineering Conference and Symposium on the foundations of software engineering, pp 729\u201333. Lake Buena Vista FL USA: ACM. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3236024.3264833.","DOI":"10.1145\/3236024.3264833"},{"key":"1866_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Metcalf J, Moss E, Watkins EA, Singh R, Elish MC (2021) Algorithmic Impact assessments and accountability: the co-construction of impacts. In: Proceedings of the 2021 ACM Conference on fairness, accountability, and transparency, pp 735\u201346. Virtual Event Canada: ACM. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3442188.3445935.","DOI":"10.1145\/3442188.3445935"},{"key":"1866_CR44","unstructured":"Ministry of Defence (2022) Ambitious, safe, responsible: our approach to the delivery of AI-enabled capability in defence. https:\/\/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk\/government\/uploads\/system\/uploads\/attachment_data\/file\/1082991\/20220614-Ambitious_Safe_and_Responsible.pdf.  Accessed 18 Dec 2023"},{"issue":"2","key":"1866_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1007\/s11023-021-09557-8","volume":"31","author":"J M\u00f6kander","year":"2021","unstructured":"M\u00f6kander J, Floridi L (2021a) Ethics-based auditing to develop trustworthy AI. Mind Mach 31(2):323\u2013327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11023-021-09557-8","journal-title":"Mind Mach"},{"issue":"4","key":"1866_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-021-00319-4","volume":"27","author":"J M\u00f6kander","year":"2021","unstructured":"M\u00f6kander J, Morley J, Taddeo M, Floridi L (2021) Ethics-based auditing of automated decision-making systems: nature, scope, and limitations. Sci Eng Ethics 27(4):44. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11948-021-00319-4","journal-title":"Sci Eng Ethics"},{"issue":"4","key":"1866_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2141","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-019-00165-5","volume":"26","author":"J Morley","year":"2020","unstructured":"Morley J, Floridi L, Kinsey L, Elhalal A (2020) From what to how: an initial review of publicly available AI ethics tools, methods and research to translate principles into practices. Sci Eng Ethics 26(4):2141\u20132168. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11948-019-00165-5","journal-title":"Sci Eng Ethics"},{"issue":"2","key":"1866_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1007\/s11023-021-09563-w","volume":"31","author":"J Morley","year":"2021","unstructured":"Morley J, Elhalal A, Garcia F, Kinsey L, M\u00f6kander J, Floridi L (2021) Ethics as a service: a pragmatic operationalisation of AI ethics. Mind Mach 31(2):239\u2013256. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11023-021-09563-w","journal-title":"Mind Mach"},{"key":"1866_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-022-00209-w","author":"L Munn","year":"2022","unstructured":"Munn L (2022) The uselessness of AI ethics. AI & Soc. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s43681-022-00209-w","journal-title":"AI & Soc"},{"key":"1866_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-023-01635-y","author":"C Novelli","year":"2023","unstructured":"Novelli C, Taddeo M, Floridi L (2023) Accountability in artificial intelligence: what it is and how it works. AI & Soc. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-023-01635-y","journal-title":"AI & Soc"},{"key":"1866_CR51","unstructured":"Peters D (2019) Beyond principles: a process for responsible tech. The Ethics of Digital Experience (blog). 14 May 2019. https:\/\/medium.com\/ethics-of-digital-experience\/beyond-principles-a-process-for-responsible-tech-aefc921f7317.  Accessed 18 Dec 2023"},{"key":"1866_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Porter Z, Habli I, McDermid J, Kaas M (2022) A principles-based ethical assurance argument for AI and autonomous systems. arXiv. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2203.15370","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2203.15370"},{"issue":"July","key":"1866_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clsr.2020.105404","volume":"37","author":"CD Raab","year":"2020","unstructured":"Raab CD (2020) Information privacy, impact assessment, and the place of ethics. Comput Law Secur Rev 37(July):105404. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.clsr.2020.105404","journal-title":"Comput Law Secur Rev"},{"key":"1866_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Raji ID, Smart A, White RN, Mitchell M, Gebru T, Hutchinson B, Smith-Loud J, Theron D, Barnes P (2020) Closing the AI accountability gap: defining an end-to-end framework for internal algorithmic auditing. arXiv. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2001.00973.","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2001.00973"},{"key":"1866_CR55","volume-title":"Algorithmic imapct assessments: a practical framework for public agency accountability","author":"D Reisman","year":"2018","unstructured":"Reisman D, Schultz J, Crawford K, Whittaker M (2018) Algorithmic imapct assessments: a practical framework for public agency accountability. AI Now Institute, New York"},{"issue":"1","key":"1866_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1108\/JICES-12-2019-0138","volume":"19","author":"M Ryan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ryan M, Stahl BC (2021) Artificial intelligence ethics guidelines for developers and users: clarifying their content and normative implications. J Inf Commun Ethics Soc 19(1):61\u201386. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/JICES-12-2019-0138","journal-title":"J Inf Commun Ethics Soc"},{"key":"1866_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sanderson C, Douglas D, Lu Q, Schleiger E, Whittle J, Lacey J, Newnham G, Hajkowicz S, Robinson C, Hansen D (2022) AI ethics principles in practice: perspectives of designers and developers. arXiv. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2112.07467","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2112.07467"},{"issue":"2014","key":"1866_CR58","first-page":"4349","volume":"22","author":"C Sandvig","year":"2014","unstructured":"Sandvig C, Hamilton K, Karahalios K, Langbort C (2014) Auditing algorithms: research methods for detecting discrimination on internet platforms. Data Discrim Conver Crit Concerns Prod Inquiry 22(2014):4349\u20134357","journal-title":"Data Discrim Conver Crit Concerns Prod Inquiry"},{"key":"1866_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Schiff D, Rakova B, Ayesh A, Fanti A, Lennon M (2020) Principles to practices for responsible AI: closing the gap. arXiv. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2006.04707.","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2006.04707"},{"key":"1866_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Selbst AD, Boyd D, Friedler SA, Venkatasubramanian S, Vertesi J (2019) Fairness and abstraction in sociotechnical systems. In: Proceedings of the Conference on fairness, accountability, and transparency, pp 59\u201368","DOI":"10.1145\/3287560.3287598"},{"key":"1866_CR61","unstructured":"Sepp\u00e4l\u00e4 A, Birkstedt T, M\u00e4ntym\u00e4ki M (2021) From ethical AI principles to governed AI. In: ICIS 2021 Proceedings 10.  https:\/\/aisel.aisnet.org\/icis2021\/ai_business\/ai_business\/10"},{"key":"1866_CR62","unstructured":"Stanley-Lockman Z, Christie EH (2021) An artificial intelligence strategy for NATO. NATO Review. 25 October 2021. https:\/\/www.nato.int\/docu\/review\/articles\/2021\/10\/25\/an-artificial-intelligence-strategy-for-nato\/index.html. Accessed 18 Dec 2023"},{"key":"1866_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stanley-Lockman Z (2021) Responsible and ethical military AI: allies and allied perspectives. Centre for Security and Emerging Technology. https:\/\/cset.georgetown.edu\/publication\/responsible-and-ethical-military-ai\/.  Accessed 18 Dec 2023","DOI":"10.51593\/20200091"},{"issue":"9","key":"1866_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1568","DOI":"10.1016\/j.respol.2013.05.008","volume":"42","author":"J Stilgoe","year":"2013","unstructured":"Stilgoe J, Owen R, Macnaghten P (2013) Developing a framework for responsible innovation. Res Policy 42(9):1568\u20131580. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.respol.2013.05.008","journal-title":"Res Policy"},{"issue":"1","key":"1866_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-020-00277-3","volume":"27","author":"C Stix","year":"2021","unstructured":"Stix C (2021) Actionable principles for artificial intelligence policy: three pathways. Sci Eng Ethics 27(1):15. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11948-020-00277-3","journal-title":"Sci Eng Ethics"},{"key":"1866_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Taddeo M (2013) Cyber security and individual rights, striking the right balance. Philos  Technol 26(4):353\u2013356. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13347-013-0140-9","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-013-0140-9"},{"key":"1866_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Taddeo M (2015) The struggle between liberties and authorities in the information age. Sci Eng Ethics 21:1125\u20131138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11948-014-9586-0","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-014-9586-0"},{"issue":"6404","key":"1866_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aat5991","volume":"361","author":"M Taddeo","year":"2018","unstructured":"Taddeo M, Floridi L (2018) How AI can be a force for good. Science 361(6404):751\u2013752. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.aat5991","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"1866_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Taddeo M, McNeish D, Blanchard A, Edgar E (2021) Ethical principles for artificial intelligence in national defence. Philos Technol 34(4):1707\u20131729. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13347-021-00482-3","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-021-00482-3"},{"issue":"3","key":"1866_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-022-00571-x","volume":"35","author":"M Taddeo","year":"2022","unstructured":"Taddeo M, Blanchard A (2022) Accepting moral responsibility for the actions of autonomous weapons systems\u2014a moral gambit. Philos Technol 35(3):78. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13347-022-00571-x","journal-title":"Philos Technol"},{"key":"1866_CR68","volume-title":"Artificial intelligence for national security: the predictability problem","author":"M Taddeo","year":"2022","unstructured":"Taddeo M, Ziosi M, Tsamados A, Gilli L, Kurapati S (2022) Artificial intelligence for national security: the predictability problem. Centre for Emerging Technology and Security, London"},{"key":"1866_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Taddeo M, Blanchard A, Thomas C (2024) From AI ethics principles to practices: a teleological methodology to apply AI ethics principles in the defence domain. Philos Technol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13347-024-00710-6","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-024-00710-6"},{"issue":"1","key":"1866_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1038\/s42256-019-0136-y","volume":"2","author":"A Theodorou","year":"2020","unstructured":"Theodorou A, Dignum V (2020) Towards ethical and socio-legal governance in AI. Nat Mach Intell 2(1):10\u201312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s42256-019-0136-y","journal-title":"Nat Mach Intell"},{"key":"1866_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-021-01154-8","author":"A Tsamados","year":"2021","unstructured":"Tsamados A, Aggarwal N, Cowls J, Morley J, Roberts H, Taddeo M, Floridi L (2021) The ethics of algorithms: key problems and solutions. AI & Soc. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-021-01154-8","journal-title":"AI & Soc"},{"key":"1866_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-33742-1_21","volume-title":"Software business. Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing","author":"V Vakkuri","year":"2019","unstructured":"Vakkuri V, Kemell K-K (2019) Implementing AI ethics in practice: an empirical evaluation of the RESOLVEDD STrategy. In: Hyrynsalmi S, Suoranta M, Nguyen-Duc A, Tyrv\u00e4inen P, Abrahamsson P (eds) Software business. Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing, vol 370. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 260\u2013275. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-33742-1_21"},{"key":"1866_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Whittlestone J, Nyrup R, Alexandrova A, Cave S (2019) The role and limits of principles in AI ethics: towards a focus on tensions. In: Proceedings of the 2019 AAAI\/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society, pp 195\u2013200. Honolulu HI USA: ACM. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3306618.3314289","DOI":"10.1145\/3306618.3314289"},{"issue":"4","key":"1866_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8519.2009.01712.x","volume":"23","author":"G Widdershoven","year":"2009","unstructured":"Widdershoven G, Abma T, Molewijk B (2009) Empirical ethics as dialogical practice. Bioethics 23(4):236\u2013248. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1467-8519.2009.01712.x","journal-title":"Bioethics"},{"key":"1866_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2018.0085","author":"AFT Winfield","year":"2018","unstructured":"Winfield AFT, Jirotka M (2018) Ethical governance is essential to building trust in robotics and artificial intelligence systems. Philos Trans R Soc A Math Phys Eng Sci. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rsta.2018.0085","journal-title":"Philos Trans R Soc A Math Phys Eng Sci"}],"container-title":["AI &amp; SOCIETY"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00146-024-01866-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00146-024-01866-7\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00146-024-01866-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,18]],"date-time":"2025-02-18T11:44:57Z","timestamp":1739879097000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00146-024-01866-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,19]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}},"alternative-id":["1866"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-024-01866-7","relation":{},"ISSN":["0951-5666","1435-5655"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0951-5666","type":"print"},{"value":"1435-5655","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,19]]},"assertion":[{"value":"22 July 2023","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"5 January 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"19 February 2024","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}]}}