{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T21:36:36Z","timestamp":1779312996987,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,13]],"date-time":"2025-01-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736726400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,13]],"date-time":"2025-01-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736726400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007210","name":"RWTH Aachen University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007210","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["AI &amp; Soc"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>The Turing test has a peculiar status in the artificial intelligence (AI) research community. On the one hand, it is presented as an important topic in virtually every AI textbook, and the research direction focused on developing AI systems that behave in human-like fashion is standardly called the \u201cTuring test approach\u201d. On the other hand, reports of computer programs passing the Turing test have had relatively little effect. Does this mean that the Turing test is no longer relevant as a test, doomed to be a theoretical notion with little connection to AI practice? In this paper, I argue that there is one problem in particular with common traditional versions of the Turing test, namely their focus on deception. The criterion for passing the Turing test is standardly connected to an AI system\u2019s ability to deceive the interrogator about its identity. But why should we connect intelligence to the ability deceive? Here I present a revised version of an intelligence test that is not based on deception. In what I call the Community-based intelligence test (CBIT), an AI is introduced to a community of human subjects. If after a sufficient number of interactions within that community the humans are not able to identify the AI system as a computer, it is considered to have passed CBIT. I discuss whether that should be enough to ascribe intelligence to the AI, and if not, what more would be needed?<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-024-02172-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,13]],"date-time":"2025-01-13T22:52:10Z","timestamp":1736808730000},"page":"4065-4077","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Intelligence is not deception: from the Turing test to community-based ascriptions"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"40","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8572-1453","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Markus","family":"Pantsar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"2172_CR1","unstructured":"Arcas B, Norvig P (2023) Artificial General Intelligence is already here.\u00a0Noema. https:\/\/www.noemamag.com\/artificial-general-intelligence-is-already-here"},{"key":"2172_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Billard A, Grollman D (2012) Imitation learning in robots. In: Seel NM (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning (pp. 1494\u20131496). Springer US. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-1-4419-1428-6_758","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-1428-6_758"},{"key":"2172_CR3","unstructured":"Boden M (2006) Mind as machine: a history of cognitive science. Oxford University Press"},{"key":"2172_CR4","unstructured":"Bricmont J, Sokal A (2003) Intellectual Impostures (Main-Re-issue edition). Profile Books"},{"issue":"1","key":"2172_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1011206622741","volume":"11","author":"S Bringsjord","year":"2001","unstructured":"Bringsjord S, Bello P, Ferrucci D (2001) Creativity, the Turing test, and the (Better) Lovelace test. Mind Mach 11(1):3\u201327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023\/A:1011206622741","journal-title":"Mind Mach"},{"key":"2172_CR6","unstructured":"Chomsky N, Roberts I, Watumull J (2023) Opinion | Noam Chomsky: The False Promise of ChatGPT (March 8 2023). The New York Times. https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/03\/08\/opinion\/noam-chomsky-chatgpt-ai.html"},{"key":"2172_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cianciolo, A. T., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Intelligence: a brief history. Blackwell Pub.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470693988"},{"issue":"1","key":"2172_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1933-1592.2007.00114.x","volume":"76","author":"A Clark","year":"2008","unstructured":"Clark A (2008) Pressing the flesh: a tension in the study of the embodied, embedded mind? Philos Phenomenol Res 76(1):37\u201359. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1933-1592.2007.00114.x","journal-title":"Philos Phenomenol Res"},{"issue":"4","key":"2172_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1011285919106","volume":"10","author":"BJ Copeland","year":"2000","unstructured":"Copeland BJ (2000) The Turing test. Mind Mach 10(4):519\u2013539. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023\/A:1011285919106","journal-title":"Mind Mach"},{"issue":"4","key":"2172_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1007\/s11023-020-09551-6","volume":"30","author":"N Damassino","year":"2020","unstructured":"Damassino N (2020) The questioning Turing test. Mind Mach 30(4):563\u2013587. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11023-020-09551-6","journal-title":"Mind Mach"},{"key":"2172_CR11","volume-title":"Are we smart enough to know how smart animals are?","author":"FBM de Waal","year":"2017","unstructured":"de Waal FBM (2017) Are we smart enough to know how smart animals are? Norton"},{"key":"2172_CR12","unstructured":"Dreyfus HL (1992) What computers still can\u2019t do: a critique of artificial reason. MIT Press"},{"key":"2172_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198235934.003.0008","volume-title":"Machines and Thought","author":"R Gandy","year":"1996","unstructured":"Gandy R (1996) Human versus mechanical intelligence. In: Millican P, Clark A (Eds) Machines and Thought. Oxford University Press, pp 125\u2013136"},{"issue":"2","key":"2172_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.5465\/annals.2018.0057","volume":"14","author":"E Glikson","year":"2020","unstructured":"Glikson E, Woolley AW (2020) Human trust in artificial intelligence: review of empirical research. Acad Manag Ann 14(2):627\u2013660. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5465\/annals.2018.0057","journal-title":"Acad Manag Ann"},{"key":"2172_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2499","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-021-01318-6","volume":"38","author":"B Gon\u00e7alves","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gon\u00e7alves B (2022) Can machines think? The controversy that led to the Turing test. AI Soc 38:2499\u20132509. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-021-01318-6","journal-title":"AI Soc"},{"issue":"1","key":"2172_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11023-022-09616-8","volume":"33","author":"B Gon\u00e7alves","year":"2023","unstructured":"Gon\u00e7alves B (2023) The Turing test is a thought experiment. Mind Mach 33(1):1\u201331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11023-022-09616-8","journal-title":"Mind Mach"},{"key":"2172_CR17","volume-title":"The Turing test argument","author":"B Gon\u00e7alves","year":"2024","unstructured":"Gon\u00e7alves B (2024) The Turing test argument. Routledge"},{"issue":"1","key":"2172_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00360578","volume":"1","author":"S Harnad","year":"1991","unstructured":"Harnad S (1991) Other bodies, other minds: a machine incarnation of an old philosophical problem. Mind Mach 1(1):43\u201354. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/BF00360578","journal-title":"Mind Mach"},{"key":"2172_CR19","unstructured":"Hayes P, Ford K (1995) Turing test considered harmful. Proceedings of the 14th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence1:972\u2013977"},{"key":"2172_CR20","unstructured":"James, A. (2023). ChatGPT has passed the Turing test and if you\u2019re freaked out, you\u2019re not alone. TechRadar. https:\/\/www.techradar.com\/opinion\/chatgpt-has-passed-the-turing-test-and-if-youre-freaked-out-youre-not-alone"},{"issue":"4616","key":"2172_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.4616.1105","volume":"1","author":"G Jefferson","year":"1949","unstructured":"Jefferson G (1949) The mind of mechanical man. BMJ 1(4616):1105\u20131110","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"2172_CR22","unstructured":"Jones C, Bergen B (2023) Does GPT-4 pass the Turing test? (arXiv:2310.20216). arXiv. http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2310.20216"},{"issue":"9","key":"2172_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2313925121","volume":"121","author":"Q Mei","year":"2024","unstructured":"Mei Q, Xie Y, Yuan W, Jackson MO (2024) A Turing test of whether AI chatbots are behaviorally similar to humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci 121(9):e2313925121. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.2313925121","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci"},{"key":"2172_CR24","volume-title":"The emotion machine: commonsense thinking, artificial intelligence, and the future of the human mind","author":"M Minsky","year":"2006","unstructured":"Minsky M (2006) The emotion machine: commonsense thinking, artificial intelligence, and the future of the human mind. Simon & Schuster"},{"key":"2172_CR25","unstructured":"Norvig P, Russell S (2021) Artificial intelligence: a modern approach, Global Edition (4th edition). Pearson"},{"issue":"1","key":"2172_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1007\/s13194-024-00569-6","volume":"14","author":"M Pantsar","year":"2024","unstructured":"Pantsar M (2024) Theorem proving in artificial neural networks: new frontiers in mathematical AI. Eur J Philos Sci 14(1):4. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13194-024-00569-6","journal-title":"Eur J Philos Sci"},{"key":"2172_CR27","unstructured":"Pantsar M (forthcoming) How to recognize artificial mathematical intelligence in theorem proving. Topoi"},{"issue":"7","key":"2172_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.5840\/jphil2013110722","volume":"110","author":"D Proudfoot","year":"2013","unstructured":"Proudfoot D (2013) Rethinking Turing\u2019s test. J Philos 110(7):391\u2013411","journal-title":"J Philos"},{"key":"2172_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Riedl MO (2014) The Lovelace 2.0 test of artificial creativity and intelligence (arXiv:1410.6142). arXiv. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.1410.6142","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.1410.6142"},{"key":"2172_CR30","unstructured":"Roivainen E (2023) I gave ChatGPT an IQ test. Here&rsquo;s What I discovered. Scientific American. https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/i-gave-chatgpt-an-iq-test-heres-what-i-discovered\/"},{"issue":"3","key":"2172_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X00005756","volume":"3","author":"JR Searle","year":"1980","unstructured":"Searle JR (1980) Minds, brains, and programs. Behav Brain Sci 3(3):417\u2013424. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0140525X00005756","journal-title":"Behav Brain Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"2172_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1609\/aimag.v37i1.2646","volume":"37","author":"SM Shieber","year":"2016","unstructured":"Shieber SM (2016) Principles for designing an AI competition, or Why the Turing test fails as an inducement prize. AI Mag 37(1):91\u201396. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1609\/aimag.v37i1.2646","journal-title":"AI Mag"},{"key":"2172_CR33","volume-title":"Models of my life","author":"HA Simon","year":"1991","unstructured":"Simon HA (1991) Models of my life. Basic Books"},{"issue":"47","key":"2172_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.2307\/466856","volume":"46","author":"A Sokal","year":"1996","unstructured":"Sokal A (1996) Transgressing the boundaries: towards a transformative hermeneutics of quantum gravity. Social Text 46(47):217\u2013252","journal-title":"Social Text"},{"key":"2172_CR35","unstructured":"Spearman C (1927) The abilities of man (pp. xxiii, 415). Macmillan"},{"issue":"4","key":"2172_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1011242120015","volume":"10","author":"SG Sterrett","year":"2000","unstructured":"Sterrett SG (2000) Turing\u2019s Two tests for intelligence. Mind Mach 10(4):541\u2013559. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023\/A:1011242120015","journal-title":"Mind Mach"},{"issue":"4","key":"2172_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1007\/s11023-020-09543-6","volume":"30","author":"SG Sterrett","year":"2020","unstructured":"Sterrett SG (2020) The Genius of the \u201cOriginal imitation Game\u201d test. Mind Mach 30(4):469\u2013486. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11023-020-09543-6","journal-title":"Mind Mach"},{"key":"2172_CR38","unstructured":"Suleyman M (2023) My new Turing test would see if AI can make $1 million. MIT technology review. https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/2023\/07\/14\/1076296\/mustafa-suleyman-my-new-turing-test-would-see-if-ai-can-make-1-million\/"},{"key":"2172_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Turing AM (1950) Computing machinery and intelligence. Mind, LIX(236), 433\u2013460. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/mind\/LIX.236.433","DOI":"10.1093\/mind\/LIX.236.433"},{"key":"2172_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Turing AM (1951) Intelligent machinery, a heretical theory. In: Copeland BJ (Ed.) (2004), The essential Turing: The ideas that gave birth to the computer age. Oxford University Press, 472\u2013475","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198250791.003.0018"},{"key":"2172_CR41","unstructured":"Turing AM (2004) The essential turing: seminal writings in computing, logic, philosophy, artificial intelligence, and artificial life plus The secrets of Enigma (Copeland BJ, Ed.; 1st edition). Clarendon Press"},{"issue":"9","key":"2172_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1145\/2643596","volume":"57","author":"MY Vardi","year":"2014","unstructured":"Vardi MY (2014) Would Turing have passed the Turing test? Commun ACM 57(9):5. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2643596","journal-title":"Commun ACM"},{"issue":"1","key":"2172_CR43","first-page":"49","volume":"102","author":"JR Walters","year":"1990","unstructured":"Walters JR (1990) Anti-predatory behavior of lapwings: field evidence of discriminative abilities. Wilson Bull 102(1):49\u201370","journal-title":"Wilson Bull"},{"issue":"6","key":"2172_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1080\/0952813X.2015.1055826","volume":"28","author":"K Warwick","year":"2016","unstructured":"Warwick K, Shah H (2016) Can machines think? A report on Turing test experiments at the Royal Society. J Exp Theor Artif Intell 28(6):989\u20131007. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/0952813X.2015.1055826","journal-title":"J Exp Theor Artif Intell"},{"issue":"4","key":"2172_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1007\/s11023-020-09533-8","volume":"30","author":"M Wheeler","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wheeler M (2020) Deceptive appearances: the turing test, response-dependence, and intelligence as an emotional concept. Mind Mach 30(4):513\u2013532. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11023-020-09533-8","journal-title":"Mind Mach"},{"key":"2172_CR46","unstructured":"Wiener N (1948) Cybernetics: or control and communication in the animal and the machine. MIT Press"},{"issue":"10","key":"2172_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1230","DOI":"10.1109\/JRPROC.1953.274272","volume":"41","author":"M Wilkes","year":"1953","unstructured":"Wilkes M (1953) Can machines think? Proc IRE 41(10):1230\u20131234. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/JRPROC.1953.274272","journal-title":"Proc IRE"},{"issue":"4","key":"2172_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-006-0039-2","volume":"9","author":"TR Zentall","year":"2006","unstructured":"Zentall TR (2006) Imitation: definitions, evidence, and mechanisms. Anim Cogn 9(4):335\u2013353. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10071-006-0039-2","journal-title":"Anim Cogn"}],"container-title":["AI &amp; SOCIETY"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00146-024-02172-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00146-024-02172-y\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00146-024-02172-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,10]],"date-time":"2025-06-10T04:19:07Z","timestamp":1749529147000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00146-024-02172-y"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,13]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["2172"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-024-02172-y","relation":{},"ISSN":["0951-5666","1435-5655"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0951-5666","type":"print"},{"value":"1435-5655","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,13]]},"assertion":[{"value":"29 April 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 December 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"13 January 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The author declares that there are no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}]}}