{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T19:04:45Z","timestamp":1777575885975,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,30]],"date-time":"2025-04-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745971200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,30]],"date-time":"2025-04-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745971200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011898","name":"Marcus och Amalia Wallenbergs minnesfond","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020.0054"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020.0054"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011898","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011898","name":"Marcus och Amalia Wallenbergs minnesfond","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020.0054"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020.0054"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011898","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011898","name":"Marcus och Amalia Wallenbergs minnesfond","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020.0054"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020.0054"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011898","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011898","name":"Marcus och Amalia Wallenbergs minnesfond","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020.0054"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020.0054"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011898","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011898","name":"Marcus och Amalia Wallenbergs minnesfond","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020.0054"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020.0054"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011898","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007051","name":"Uppsala University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007051","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["AI &amp; Soc"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>This article investigates the pervasive issue of bias within AI-driven cultural heritage collections, emphasizing how digital technologies both inherit and amplify existing societal and historical prejudices embedded in analogue records. It outlines the multifaceted nature of bias\u2014ranging from data selection and annotation to algorithmic design and user interaction\u2014demonstrating how each stage of the AI pipeline can introduce or perpetuate distortions in representation. Through a critical review of current scholarship and practical case studies, particularly in image classification, the article evaluates technical strategies such as data augmentation, adversarial debiasing, and monitoring plans for bias mitigation. The findings reveal that while methods like noise injection and colour jittering can balance datasets and improve model fairness, effective bias mitigation ultimately depends on interdisciplinary collaboration between heritage professionals, subject experts, and data scientists. The article concludes that addressing bias requires an ongoing, holistic approach, integrating both technical and humanistic perspectives from data collection to model deployment. This ensures more inclusive, accurate, and ethically sound representations of cultural heritage, supporting the sector\u2019s goals of diversity and accessibility for future audiences.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-025-02349-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,29]],"date-time":"2025-04-29T22:32:10Z","timestamp":1745965930000},"page":"5835-5847","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Tracing the bias loop: AI, cultural heritage and bias-mitigating in practice"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"40","author":[{"given":"Anna","family":"Foka","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Gabriele","family":"Griffin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Dalia","family":"Ortiz Pablo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Paulina","family":"Rajkowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Sushruth","family":"Badri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,30]]},"reference":[{"issue":"30","key":"2349_CR1","first-page":"48","volume":"2020","author":"M Adams","year":"2020","unstructured":"Adams M, Spence J, Clark S, Farr JR, Benford S, Tandavanitj N (2020) From sharing to gifting: a web app for deepening engagement. Proc EVA London 2020(30):48\u201349","journal-title":"Proc EVA London"},{"key":"2349_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429491573-2","volume-title":"The digital future of museums: conversations and provocations","author":"S Anderson","year":"2020","unstructured":"Anderson S (2020) Some provocations on the digital future of museums. In: Winesmith K, Anderson S (eds) The digital future of museums: conversations and provocations. Routledge, Abingdon, New York, pp 10\u201327"},{"issue":"6","key":"2349_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1007\/s00779-020-01373-8","volume":"24","author":"L Argyriou","year":"2020","unstructured":"Argyriou L, Economou D, Bouki V (2020) Design methodology for 360 immersive video applications: the case study of a cultural heritage virtual tour. Pers Ubiquit Comput 24(6):843\u2013859","journal-title":"Pers Ubiquit Comput"},{"key":"2349_CR4","unstructured":"Bagga S, Piper A (2020) Measuring the Effects of Bias in Training Data for Literary Classification. In: Proceedings of the the 4th joint SIGHUM workshop on computational linguistics for cultural heritage, social sciences, humanities and literature, pp. 74\u201384, Online. International Committee on Computational Linguistics"},{"key":"2349_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bahrami M, Albadvi A (2023) Deep learning for identifying Iran\u2019s cultural heritage buildings in need of conservation using image classification and Grad-CAM. arxiv preprint arxiv:2302.14354v1.","DOI":"10.1145\/3631130"},{"issue":"3","key":"2349_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1086\/345321","volume":"28","author":"K Barad","year":"2003","unstructured":"Barad K (2003) Posthumanist performativity: toward an understanding of how matter comes to matter. Signs: J Women Cult Soc 28(3):801\u2013831","journal-title":"Signs: J Women Cult Soc"},{"issue":"1","key":"2349_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/llc\/fqac037","volume":"38","author":"K Beelen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Beelen K, Lawrence J, Wilson DCS, Beavan D (2023) Bias and representativeness in digitized newspaper collections: introducing the environmental scan. Digit Scholarsh Humanit 38(1):1\u201322","journal-title":"Digit Scholarsh Humanit"},{"key":"2349_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berg H, Hall SM, Bhalgat Y, Yang W, Kirk HR, Shtedritski A, Bain M (2022) A prompt array keeps the bias away: debiasing vision-language models with adversarial learning. arXiv preprint arXiv:2203.11933.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2022.aacl-main.61"},{"key":"2349_CR9","volume-title":"Monumental ambivalence: the politics of heritage","author":"L Breglia","year":"2006","unstructured":"Breglia L (2006) Monumental ambivalence: the politics of heritage. University of Texas Press, Austin"},{"key":"2349_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neunet.2018.07.011","volume":"106","author":"M Buda","year":"2018","unstructured":"Buda M, Maki A, Mazurowski MA (2018) A systematic study of the class imbalance problem in convolutional neural networks. Neural Netw 106:249\u2013259","journal-title":"Neural Netw"},{"key":"2349_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annals.2007.03.014","volume":"35","author":"K Caton","year":"2008","unstructured":"Caton K, Santos CA (2008) Closing the hermeneutic circle photographic encounters with the other. Ann Tour Res 35:7\u201326","journal-title":"Ann Tour Res"},{"key":"2349_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118486634.ch33","volume-title":"A companion to heritage studies","author":"P Daly","year":"2015","unstructured":"Daly P, Chan B (2015) Putting broken pieces back together: reconciliation, justice, and heritage in post-conflict situations. In: Logan W, Craith MN, Kocke U (eds) A companion to heritage studies. John Wiley and Sons, Malden, MA, pp 491\u2013506"},{"issue":"2","key":"2349_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517211044808","volume":"8","author":"JL Davis","year":"2021","unstructured":"Davis JL, Williams A, Yang MW (2021) Algorithmic reparation. Big Data Soc 8(2):1\u201312","journal-title":"Big Data Soc"},{"key":"2349_CR14","unstructured":"DE-BIAS - Detecting and cur(at)ing harmful language in cultural heritage collections (2025) Europeana PRO. Retrieved 30 October 2023, from https:\/\/pro.europeana.eu\/project\/de-bias"},{"key":"2349_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng J, Guo J, Zhou Y, Yu J, Kotsia I, Zafeiriou S (2019) Retinaface: single-stage dense face localisation in the wild. arXiv preprint arXiv:1905.00641","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR42600.2020.00525"},{"key":"2349_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-97457-6_12","volume-title":"Museums and digital culture: new perspectives and research","author":"S Dunn","year":"2019","unstructured":"Dunn S, Earl G, Foka A, Wootton W (2019) Spatial narratives in museums and online: the birth of the digital object itinerary. In: Bowden J, Gianini T (eds) Museums and digital culture: new perspectives and research. Springer, London and New York, pp 253\u2013327"},{"issue":"16","key":"2349_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1503","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2020.1767982","volume":"36","author":"L Eklund","year":"2020","unstructured":"Eklund L (2020) A shoe is a shoe is a shoe: Interpersonalization and meaning-making in museums\u2013research findings and design implications. Int J Hum-Comput Interact 36(16):1503\u20131513","journal-title":"Int J Hum-Comput Interact"},{"key":"2349_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/9781782042662","volume-title":"Conserving and managing ancient monuments: heritage, democracy, and inclusion","author":"K Emerick","year":"2014","unstructured":"Emerick K (2014) Conserving and managing ancient monuments: heritage, democracy, and inclusion. Boydell & Brewer, Woodbridge"},{"key":"2349_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-86797-3_7","volume-title":"Innovation through information systems: volume II: a collection of latest research on technology issues","author":"T Fahse","year":"2021","unstructured":"Fahse T, Huber V, van Giffen B (2021) Managing bias in machine learning projects. In: Ahlemann F, Sch\u00fctte R, Stiegllitz S (eds) Innovation through information systems: volume II: a collection of latest research on technology issues. Springer, London and New York, pp 94\u2013109"},{"key":"2349_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Foka A, Eklund L, L\u00f8vlie AS, Griffin G (2023) Critically assessing AI\/ML for cultural heritage: potentials and challenges. Handbook of critical studies of artificial intelligence, pp 815\u2013825","DOI":"10.4337\/9781803928562.00082"},{"key":"2349_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1080\/08989620212968","volume":"9","author":"J Gardenier","year":"2002","unstructured":"Gardenier J, Resnik D (2002) The misuse of statistics: concepts, tools, and a research agenda. Account Res 9:65\u201374","journal-title":"Account Res"},{"key":"2349_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctv1xz0wz","volume-title":"Museum object lessons for the digital age","author":"H Geismar","year":"2018","unstructured":"Geismar H (2018) Museum object lessons for the digital age. UCL Press, London"},{"key":"2349_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-023-01689-y","author":"G Griffin","year":"2023","unstructured":"Griffin G, Wennerstr\u00f6m E, Foka A (2023) AI and Swedish heritage organisations: challenges and opportunities. AI Soc. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-023-01689-y","journal-title":"AI Soc"},{"issue":"5","key":"2349_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1080\/00438243.2016.1209783","volume":"48","author":"Y Hamilakis","year":"2016","unstructured":"Hamilakis Y (2016) Decolonial archaeologies: from ethnoarchaeology to archaeological ethnography. World Archaeol 48(5):678\u2013682","journal-title":"World Archaeol"},{"key":"2349_CR24","first-page":"5","volume-title":"Understanding the politics of heritage","author":"R Harrison","year":"2010","unstructured":"Harrison R (2010) Introduction. In: Harrison R (ed) Understanding the politics of heritage. Manchester University Press, Manchester, pp 5\u201342"},{"key":"2349_CR25","volume-title":"Heritage: critical approaches","author":"R Harrison","year":"2013","unstructured":"Harrison R (2013) Heritage: critical approaches. Routledge, New York"},{"key":"2349_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He K, Zhang X, Ren S, Sun J (2016) Deep residual learning for image recognition. In: Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition (CVPR)","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2016.90"},{"issue":"2","key":"2349_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.7183\/2326-3768.1.2.77","volume":"1","author":"AC Huster","year":"2013","unstructured":"Huster AC (2013) Assessing systematic bias in museum collections: a case study of spindle whorls. Adv Archaeol Pract 1(2):77\u201390","journal-title":"Adv Archaeol Pract"},{"key":"2349_CR28","unstructured":"Izsak K, Terrier A, Kreutzer S, et al (2022) Opportunities and challenges of artificial intelligence technologies for the cultural and creative sectors. Brussels: Publications Office of the European Union, European Commission, Directorate-General for Communications Networks, Content and Technology."},{"key":"2349_CR29","unstructured":"Kamiran F, Calders T (2010) Classification with no discrimination by preferential sampling. In: Informal proceedings of the 19th annual machine learning conference of Belgium and The Netherlands, Benelearn'10, Leuven, Belgium, pp 1\u20136"},{"issue":"3","key":"2349_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1093\/llc\/fqaa055","volume":"36","author":"I Kizhner","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kizhner I, Terras M, Rumyantsev M, Khokhlova V, Demeshkova E, Rudov I, Afanasieva J (2021) Digital cultural colonialism: measuring bias in aggregated digitized content held in Google arts and culture. Digit Scholarsh Humanit 36(3):607\u2013640","journal-title":"Digit Scholarsh Humanit"},{"key":"2349_CR31","first-page":"3","volume-title":"National museums: new studies from around the world","author":"S Knell","year":"2010","unstructured":"Knell S (2010) Introduction. In: Knell SJ, Aronsson P, Amundsen AB (eds) National museums: new studies from around the world. Routledge, London, pp 3\u201329"},{"key":"2349_CR32","unstructured":"Kobzev I, Roman V (2021) Architectural heritage elements image64 . Kaggle.https:\/\/www.kaggle.com\/datasets\/ikobzev\/architectural-heritage-elements-image64-dataset."},{"key":"2349_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.11588\/dah.2018.3.34297","author":"A Langmead","year":"2018","unstructured":"Langmead A, Berg-Fulton T, Lombardi T, Newbury D, Nygren C (2018) A role-based model for successful collaboration in digital art history. Int J Dig Art Hist. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.11588\/dah.2018.3.34297","journal-title":"Int J Dig Art Hist"},{"key":"2349_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118486634.ch37","volume-title":"A companion to heritage studies","author":"W Logan","year":"2015","unstructured":"Logan W, Wijesuriya G (2015) The new heritage studies and education, training, and capacity-building. In: Logan W, Craith MN, Kocke U (eds) A companion to heritage studies. John Wiley and Sons, Malden, MA, pp 557\u2013573"},{"key":"2349_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lowenthal D (2015) The past is a foreign country \u2013 Revisited. Cambridge University Press","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139024884"},{"key":"2349_CR35","volume-title":"A companion to museum studies","year":"2011","unstructured":"Macdonald S (ed) (2011) A companion to museum studies. John Wiley & Sons, Malden, MA"},{"key":"2349_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5210\/fm.v26i10.11562","author":"M Makhortykh","year":"2021","unstructured":"Makhortykh M, Urman A, Ulloa R (2021) Hey, Google, is it what the Holocaust looked like?: Auditing algorithmic curation of visual historical content on Web search engines. First Monday. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5210\/fm.v26i10.11562","journal-title":"First Monday"},{"issue":"3\/4","key":"2349_CR37","first-page":"201","volume":"30","author":"K Mallan","year":"2006","unstructured":"Mallan K, Park E (2006) Is digitization sufficient for collective remembering? Access to and use of cultural heritage collections. Can J Inf Libr Sci 30(3\/4):201\u2013220","journal-title":"Can J Inf Libr Sci"},{"issue":"6","key":"2349_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3457607","volume":"54","author":"N Mehrabi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Mehrabi N, Morstatter F, Saxena N, Lerman K, Galstyan A (2021) A survey on bias and fairness in machine learning. ACM Comput Surv (CSUR) 54(6):1\u201335","journal-title":"ACM Comput Surv (CSUR)"},{"key":"2349_CR39","first-page":"117","volume-title":"Data augmentation for improving deep learning in image classification problem","author":"A Miko\u0142ajczyk","year":"2018","unstructured":"Miko\u0142ajczyk A, Grochowski M (2018) Data augmentation for improving deep learning in image classification problem. IEEE, IIPhDW, pp 117\u2013122"},{"issue":"4","key":"2349_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1177\/1527476419837739","volume":"20","author":"S Milan","year":"2019","unstructured":"Milan S, Trere E (2019) Big data from the south(s): beyond data universalism. Telev New Med 20(4):319\u2013335","journal-title":"Telev New Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"2349_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"011016","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JEI.26.1.011016","volume":"26","author":"AM Obeso","year":"2017","unstructured":"Obeso AM, Benois-Pineau J, Acosta A\u00c1R, V\u00e1zquez MSG (2017) Architectural style classification of Mexican historical buildings using deep convolutional neural networks and sparse features. J Electron Imaging 26(1):011016","journal-title":"J Electron Imaging"},{"issue":"9\/10","key":"2349_CR42","first-page":"1082","volume":"15","author":"B Ooghe","year":"2009","unstructured":"Ooghe B, Waasland HC, Moreels D (2009) Analysing selection for digitisation. D-Lib Mag 15(9\/10):1082\u20139873","journal-title":"D-Lib Mag"},{"key":"2349_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pastaltzidis I, Dimitriou N, Quezada-Tavarez K, Aidinlis S, Marquenie T, Gurzawska A, Tzovaras D (2022) Data augmentation for fairness-aware machine learning: preventing algorithmic bias in law enforcement systems. In: 2022 ACM conference on fairness, accountability, and transparency, pp 2302\u20132314","DOI":"10.1145\/3531146.3534644"},{"key":"2349_CR44","unstructured":"Powers DM (2020) Evaluation: from precision, recall and F-measure to ROC, informedness, markedness and correlation. arXiv preprint arXiv:2010.16061."},{"key":"2349_CR71","unstructured":"Prescott A, Hughes L (2018) Why do we digitize? The case for slow digitization. Archive Journal. https:\/\/www.archivejournal.net\/essays\/why-do-wedigitize-the-case-for-slow-digitization\/"},{"key":"2349_CR45","unstructured":"Rajkowska P (2022) Articulating the user: a discursive-material analysis of humans in interdisciplinary design collaborations, Uppsala University PhD Thesis in Human Computer Interaction: Uppsala University Press, pp. 1\u2013176"},{"key":"2349_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315730479-8","volume-title":"The Routledge companion to media studies and digital humanities","author":"R Risam","year":"2018","unstructured":"Risam R (2018) Decolonizing the digital humanities in theory and practice. In: Sayers J (ed) The Routledge companion to media studies and digital humanities. Routledge, London, pp 78\u201386"},{"key":"2349_CR47","volume-title":"Orientalism","author":"EW Said","year":"1978","unstructured":"Said EW (1978) Orientalism. Random House, New York"},{"issue":"2","key":"2349_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annals.2011.10.004","volume":"39","author":"NB Salazar","year":"2012","unstructured":"Salazar NB (2012) Tourism imaginaries: a conceptual approach. Ann Tour Res 39(2):863\u2013882","journal-title":"Ann Tour Res"},{"issue":"2","key":"2349_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1068\/d220t","volume":"20","author":"JP Sharp","year":"2002","unstructured":"Sharp JP (2002) Writing travel\/travelling writing: Roland Barthes detours the Orient. Environ Plann d: Soc Space 20(2):155\u2013166","journal-title":"Environ Plann d: Soc Space"},{"key":"2349_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shijie J, Ping W, Peiyi J, Siping H (2017) Research on data augmentation for image classification based on convolution neural networks. In: 2017 Chinese automation congress (CAC). IEEE, pp 4165\u20134170.","DOI":"10.1109\/CAC.2017.8243510"},{"issue":"1","key":"2349_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40537-019-0197-0","volume":"6","author":"C Shorten","year":"2019","unstructured":"Shorten C, Khoshgoftaar TM (2019) A survey on image data augmentation for deep learning. J Big Data 6(1):1\u201348","journal-title":"J Big Data"},{"key":"2349_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-42870-3","volume-title":"Heritage in action: making the past in the present","author":"H Silverman","year":"2017","unstructured":"Silverman H, Waterton E, Watson S (2017) An introduction to heritage in action. In: Silverman H, Waterton E, Watson S (eds) Heritage in action: making the past in the present. Springer, Cham, pp 3\u201318"},{"key":"2349_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203602263","volume-title":"Uses of heritage","author":"L Smith","year":"2006","unstructured":"Smith L (2006) Uses of heritage. Routledge, London"},{"key":"2349_CR54","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Heritage, labour and the working classes","author":"L Smith","year":"2011","unstructured":"Smith L, Shackel P, Campbell G (2011) Introduction: class still matters. In: Smith L, Shackel P, Campbell G (eds) Heritage, labour and the working classes. Routledge, London, pp 1\u201316"},{"issue":"4","key":"2349_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2009.03.002","volume":"45","author":"M Sokolova","year":"2009","unstructured":"Sokolova M, Lapalme G (2009) A systematic analysis of performance measures for classification tasks. Inf Process Manag 45(4):427\u2013437","journal-title":"Inf Process Manag"},{"key":"2349_CR56","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Equity and access in algorithms, mechanisms, and optimization (EAAMO '21)","author":"H Suresh","year":"2021","unstructured":"Suresh H, Guttag J (2021) A framework for understanding sources of harm throughout the machine learning life cycle. Equity and access in algorithms, mechanisms, and optimization (EAAMO \u201921). ACM, New York, NY, USA, pp 1\u20139"},{"key":"2349_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taylor L, Nitschke G (2018) Improving deep learning with generic data augmentation. In: 2018 IEEE symposium series on computational intelligence (SSCI). IEEE, pp 1542\u20131547","DOI":"10.1109\/SSCI.2018.8628742"},{"key":"2349_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thylstrup NB (2019) The politics of mass digitization. MIT Press","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/11404.001.0001"},{"key":"2349_CR58","volume-title":"Dissonant heritage: the management of the past as a resource in conflict","author":"JE Tunbridge","year":"1996","unstructured":"Tunbridge JE, Ashworth GJ (1996) Dissonant heritage: the management of the past as a resource in conflict. J. Wiley, Chichester"},{"key":"2349_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbusres.2022.01.076","volume":"144","author":"B van Giffen","year":"2022","unstructured":"van Giffen B, Herhausen D, Fahse T (2022) Overcoming the pitfalls and perils of algorithms: a classification of machine learning biases and mitigation methods. J Bus Res 144:93\u2013106","journal-title":"J Bus Res"},{"key":"2349_CR60","unstructured":"Varldskulturmuseerna. (2025) Photographic collections. https:\/\/www.varldskulturmuseerna.se\/samlingarna\/sok-i-samlingarna\/sok-i-samlingarna\/."},{"key":"2349_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang T, Zhao J, Yatskar M, Chang KW, Ordonez V (2019) Balanced datasets are not enough: Estimating and mitigating gender bias in deep image representations. Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF international conference on computer vision, pp 5310\u20135319","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2019.00541"},{"key":"2349_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wasielewski A (2023) Computational formalism: art history and machine learning. MIT Press","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/14268.001.0001"},{"key":"2349_CR62","first-page":"249","volume-title":"How to assess built heritage? Assumptions, methodologies, examples of heritage assessment systems","author":"JC Wells","year":"2015","unstructured":"Wells JC (2015) In stakeholders we trust: changing the ontological and epistemological orientation of built heritage assessment through participatory action research. In: Szmygin B (ed) How to assess built heritage? Assumptions, methodologies, examples of heritage assessment systems. Romualdo Del Bianco Foundatione and Lublin University of Technology, Florence and Lublin, pp 249\u2013265"},{"issue":"3","key":"2349_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1108\/JCHMSD-11-2015-0045","volume":"6","author":"JC Wells","year":"2016","unstructured":"Wells JC, Lixinski L (2016) Heritage values and legal rules: Identification and treatment of the historic environment via an adaptive regulatory framework (part 1). J Cult Herit Manag Sustain Dev 6(3):345\u2013364","journal-title":"J Cult Herit Manag Sustain Dev"},{"issue":"6","key":"2349_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1080\/13527258.2012.720997","volume":"19","author":"T Winter","year":"2013","unstructured":"Winter T (2013) Clarifying the critical in critical heritage studies. Int J Herit Stud 19(6):532\u2013545","journal-title":"Int J Herit Stud"},{"issue":"6","key":"2349_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1080\/13527258.2013.818570","volume":"19","author":"A Witcomb","year":"2013","unstructured":"Witcomb A, Buckley K (2013) Engaging with the future of \u2018critical heritage studies\u2019: looking back in order to look forward. Int J Herit Stud 19(6):562\u2013578","journal-title":"Int J Herit Stud"},{"key":"2349_CR66","unstructured":"Yang S, Xiao W, Zhang M, Guo S, Zhao J, Shen F (2022) Image data augmentation for deep learning: a survey. arXiv preprint arXiv:2204.08610."},{"key":"2349_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang BH, Lemoine B, Mitchell M (2018) Mitigating unwanted biases with adversarial learning. In: Proceedings of the 2018 AAAI\/ACM conference on AI, ethics, and society, pp 335\u2013340","DOI":"10.1145\/3278721.3278779"},{"key":"2349_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Halpern BM, Patel T, Scharenborg O (2022) Mitigating bias against non-native accents. In: Proceedings of the annual conference of the international speech communication association, INTERSPEECH, pp 3168\u20133172.","DOI":"10.21437\/Interspeech.2022-836"},{"issue":"07","key":"2349_CR69","first-page":"13001","volume":"34","author":"Z Zhong","year":"2020","unstructured":"Zhong Z, Zheng L, Kang G, Li S, Yang Y (2020) Random erasing data augmentation. Proc AAAI Conf Artif Intell. 34(07):13001\u201313008","journal-title":"Proc AAAI Conf Artif Intell."}],"container-title":["AI &amp; SOCIETY"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00146-025-02349-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00146-025-02349-z\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00146-025-02349-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]],"date-time":"2025-11-17T07:06:20Z","timestamp":1763363180000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00146-025-02349-z"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,30]]},"references-count":74,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["2349"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-025-02349-z","relation":{},"ISSN":["0951-5666","1435-5655"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0951-5666","type":"print"},{"value":"1435-5655","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,30]]},"assertion":[{"value":"12 February 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"1 April 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"30 April 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}]}}