{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T03:00:25Z","timestamp":1780714825130,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]],"date-time":"2025-12-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766448000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]],"date-time":"2025-12-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766448000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001663","name":"Volkswagen Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["\u201cConsequences of Artificial Intelligence for Urban Societies (CAIUS)\u201d"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["\u201cConsequences of Artificial Intelligence for Urban Societies (CAIUS)\u201d"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007105","name":"Universit\u00e4t Mannheim","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007105","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["AI &amp; Soc"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Urban administrations increasingly rely on AI and data-driven solutions to address complex societal problems, such as climate change and the distribution of limited resources. Since the 2000s, the term smart city has been used to describe cities that use data and technology to foster efficiency, environmental sustainability, and citizens\u2019 quality of life. Although marketed as a promising way to a digital and data-driven future, numerous examples in recent years show that technology-based solutions may come with unintended and undesired side effects, e.g., excluding certain groups of people from access to resources. This may result in discrimination and increased social inequalities. While computer science and engineering research has been very active in developing smart city technologies, much less is known about the public\u2019s attitudes towards such technologies and whether these attitudes vary across different social groups.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>To address this gap, we conducted a survey study (N = 2021) on public attitudes towards various smart city applications in May 2023 in a high-quality probability-based online panel in Germany. We presented respondents with eleven smart city technologies across four domains: mobility, social inclusion, public safety, and energy supply. Respondents indicated whether they are familiar with them and how much they would like to see the applications implemented in their neighbourhood. Using latent class analysis, we identified patterns of familiarity and desirability, and examined how these relate to gender, age, education, mobility impairment, migration background, income, and urbanicity.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Our analysis reveals distinct attitude profiles towards smart city technologies, with certain socio-demographic characteristics associated with different degrees of familiarity and desirability. The study makes a twofold contribution to the research on citizens\u2019 views on smart city applications: first, it offers a social science perspective that focuses on inequalities in public attitudes. Second, it complements the predominantly qualitative, small-sample literature with a quantitative analysis using a high-quality probability-based sample of the German population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-025-02815-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]],"date-time":"2025-12-23T06:09:13Z","timestamp":1766470153000},"page":"4441-4458","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Unfamiliar but desired: citizens\u2019 attitudes toward smart city applications"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"41","author":[{"given":"Daria","family":"Szafran","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruben L.","family":"Bach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]]},"reference":[{"issue":"4","key":"2815_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1080\/10630732.2017.1348880","volume":"24","author":"M Angelidou","year":"2017","unstructured":"Angelidou M (2017) The role of smart city characteristics in the plans of fifteen cities. J Urban Technol 24(4):3\u201328. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10630732.2017.1348880","journal-title":"J Urban Technol"},{"key":"2815_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10630732.2014.942092","author":"V Albino","year":"2015","unstructured":"Albino V, Berardi U, Dangelico RM (2015) Smart cities: definitions, dimensions, performance, and initiatives. J Urban Technol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10630732.2014.942092","journal-title":"J Urban Technol"},{"key":"2815_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/14099.001.0001","volume-title":"The computable city: histories, technologies, stories","author":"M Batty","year":"2024","unstructured":"Batty M (2024) The computable city: histories, technologies, stories. MIT Press, Predictions"},{"key":"2815_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhattacharya P (2025) Gendered mediations of urban life: the politics of \u2018space.\u2019 In: Cities: inclusive, liveable, and sustainable. Routledge","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003511175-4"},{"issue":"1","key":"2815_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1093\/cje\/bep068","volume":"34","author":"WE Bijker","year":"2010","unstructured":"Bijker WE (2010) How is technology made?\u2014that is the question! Camb J Econ 34(1):63\u201376","journal-title":"Camb J Econ"},{"key":"2815_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cugurullo F (2018) The origin of the smart city imaginary: from the dawn of modernity to the eclipse of reason. In: The Routledge Companion to Urban Imaginaries, pp 113\u201324. Routledge","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315163956-9"},{"key":"2815_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jag.2023.103537","volume":"124","author":"Q Cui","year":"2023","unstructured":"Cui Q, Zhang Y, Yang G, Huang Y, Chen Yu (2023) Analysing gender differences in the perceived safety from street view imagery. Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinf 124:103537. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jag.2023.103537","journal-title":"Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinf"},{"issue":"3","key":"2815_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1093\/comjnl\/bxy082","volume":"62","author":"Z Engin","year":"2019","unstructured":"Engin Z, Treleaven P (2019) Algorithmic government: automating public services and supporting civil servants in using data science technologies. Comput J 62(3):448\u2013460. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/comjnl\/bxy082","journal-title":"Comput J"},{"issue":"2","key":"2815_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1080\/13511610.2020.1785277","volume":"34","author":"C Echebarria","year":"2021","unstructured":"Echebarria C, Barrutia JM, Aguado-Moralejo I (2021) The smart city journey: a systematic review and future research agenda. Innov Eur J Soc Sci Res 34(2):159\u2013201. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13511610.2020.1785277","journal-title":"Innov Eur J Soc Sci Res"},{"issue":"3","key":"2815_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1140","DOI":"10.1007\/s12119-022-09998-y","volume":"27","author":"K Fairchild","year":"2023","unstructured":"Fairchild K (2023) Understanding street harassment as gendered violence: past, present, and future. Sex Cult 27(3):1140\u20131159. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12119-022-09998-y","journal-title":"Sex Cult"},{"key":"2815_CR11","unstructured":"Gough A (2016) The gendered city. In: Sustainability citizenship in cities. Routledge"},{"issue":"4","key":"2815_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.3390\/smartcities3040056","volume":"3","author":"O Golubchikov","year":"2020","unstructured":"Golubchikov O, Thornbush M (2020) Artificial intelligence and robotics in smart city strategies and planned smart development. Smart Cities 3(4):1133\u20131144. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/smartcities3040056","journal-title":"Smart Cities"},{"key":"2815_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"German S, Metternicht G, Laffan S, Hawken S (2023) Intelligent spatial technologies for gender inclusive urban environments in today\u2019s smart cities. In: Intelligent Environments, pp 285\u2013322. North-Holland","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-820247-0.00012-6"},{"issue":"3","key":"2815_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1007\/s11205-023-03087-9","volume":"166","author":"K Hartley","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hartley K (2023) Public perceptions about smart cities: governance and quality-of-life in Hong Kong. Soc Indic Res 166(3):731\u2013753. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11205-023-03087-9","journal-title":"Soc Indic Res"},{"key":"2815_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/dap.2024.15","volume":"6","author":"K Hartley","year":"2024","unstructured":"Hartley K (2024) State-society relations and government technology: a survey of public awareness and communication in Hong Kong. Data Policy 6:e18. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/dap.2024.15","journal-title":"Data Policy"},{"key":"2815_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2024.105368","volume":"154","author":"K Hartley","year":"2024","unstructured":"Hartley K, Aldag A (2024) Public trust and support for government technology: survey insights about Singapore\u2019s smart city policies. Cities 154:105368. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cities.2024.105368","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"2815_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"James P, Astoria R, Castor T, Hudspeth C, Olstinske D, Ward J (2020) Smart cities: fundamental concepts. In: Augusto, JC (ed.), Handbook of smart cities, pp 1\u201326. Springer International Publishing, Cham","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-15145-4_2-1"},{"issue":"1","key":"2815_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1080\/10630732.2018.1558387","volume":"26","author":"S Joss","year":"2019","unstructured":"Joss S, Sengers F, Schraven D, Caprotti F, Dayot Y (2019) The smart city as global discourse: storylines and critical junctures across 27 cities. J Urban Technol 26(1):3\u201334. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10630732.2018.1558387","journal-title":"J Urban Technol"},{"issue":"4","key":"2815_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1177\/02637758231209656","volume":"42","author":"K Kintzi","year":"2024","unstructured":"Kintzi K (2024) The smart grid archipelago: infrastructures of networked (dis)connectivity in Amman. Environ Plann D: Soc Space 42(4):492\u2013511. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/02637758231209656","journal-title":"Environ Plann D: Soc Space"},{"key":"2815_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaharevic A, Wihlborg E (2024) Whose future is smart?: a systematic literature review of smart cities and disadvantaged neighborhoods. In: Proceedings of the 17th international conference on theory and practice of electronic governance, ICEGOV \u201924, pp 318\u201326. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA","DOI":"10.1145\/3680127.3680220"},{"key":"2815_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kitchin R, Cardullo P, Di Feliciantonio C (2019) Citizenship, justice, and the right to the smart city. In: Cardullo P, Di Feliciantonio C, Kitchin R (eds), The right to the smart city, pp 1\u201324. Emerald Publishing Limited","DOI":"10.1108\/978-1-78769-139-120191001"},{"key":"2815_CR22","volume-title":"The Routledge companion to urban imaginaries","year":"2018","unstructured":"Lindner C, Meissner M (eds) (2018) The Routledge companion to urban imaginaries. Routledge, London"},{"key":"2815_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Magidson J, Vermunt JK (2004) Latent class models. In: Kaplan D (ed.) The SAGE handbook of quantitative methodology for the social sciences, pp 175\u201398. SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, California","DOI":"10.4135\/9781412986311.n10"},{"issue":"4","key":"2815_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1177\/02637758221088868","volume":"40","author":"E McElroy","year":"2022","unstructured":"McElroy E, Vergerio M (2022) Automating gentrification: landlord technologies and housing justice organizing in New York City homes. Environ Plann D Soc Space 40(4):607\u2013626. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/02637758221088868","journal-title":"Environ Plann D Soc Space"},{"issue":"2","key":"2815_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1080\/0966369X.2022.2053068","volume":"30","author":"S Maalsen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Maalsen S, Wolifson P, Dowling R (2023) Gender in the Australian innovation ecosystem: planning smart cities for men. Gend Place Cult 30(2):299\u2013320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/0966369X.2022.2053068","journal-title":"Gend Place Cult"},{"issue":"10463","key":"2815_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1693","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)01934-2","volume":"404","author":"MJ Nieuwenhuijsen","year":"2024","unstructured":"Nieuwenhuijsen MJ (2024) Climate crisis, cities, and health. Lancet 404(10463):1693\u20131700. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)01934-2","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2815_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Osipova M, Hornecker E (2023) Exploring the potential for smart city technology for women\u2019s safety. In: Proceedings of the 26th international academic Mindtrek conference, Mindtrek \u201923, pp 245\u2013256. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA","DOI":"10.1145\/3616961.3616988"},{"key":"2815_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2021.103442","volume":"76","author":"M Oberascher","year":"2022","unstructured":"Oberascher M, Rauch W, Sitzenfrei R (2022) Towards a smart water city: a comprehensive review of applications, data requirements, and communication technologies for integrated management. Sustain Cities Soc 76:103442. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.scs.2021.103442","journal-title":"Sustain Cities Soc"},{"key":"2815_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ufug.2022.127674","volume":"74","author":"A Phillips","year":"2022","unstructured":"Phillips A, Canters F, Khan AZ (2022) Analyzing spatial inequalities in use and experience of urban green spaces. Urban for Urban Green 74:127674. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ufug.2022.127674","journal-title":"Urban for Urban Green"},{"key":"2815_CR30","unstructured":"R Core Team (2025) R: a language and environment for statistical computing"},{"key":"2815_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2021.102986","volume":"71","author":"M Rathore","year":"2021","unstructured":"Rathore M, Mazhar M, Anand P, Seungmin R, Murad K, S. V, Syed AS (2021) Smart traffic control: identifying driving-violations using fog devices with vehicular cameras in smart cities. Sustain Cities Soc 71:102986. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.scs.2021.102986","journal-title":"Sustain Cities Soc"},{"issue":"1","key":"2815_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1093\/cjres\/rsu026","volume":"8","author":"T Shelton","year":"2015","unstructured":"Shelton T, Zook M, Wiig A (2015) The \u2018actually existing smart city.\u2019 Camb J Reg Econ Soc 8(1):13\u201325. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/cjres\/rsu026","journal-title":"Camb J Reg Econ Soc"},{"issue":"3","key":"2815_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1177\/0162243918806061","volume":"44","author":"J Sadowski","year":"2019","unstructured":"Sadowski J, Bendor R (2019) Selling smartness: corporate narratives and the smart city as a sociotechnical imaginary. Sci Technol Hum Values 44(3):540\u2013563. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0162243918806061","journal-title":"Sci Technol Hum Values"},{"key":"2815_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shadowe, N, Lodato T, Loi D (2020) Participatory governance in smart cities: future scenarios and opportunities. In: Streitz N, Konomi S (eds), Distributed, ambient and pervasive interactions, pp 443\u2013463. Springer International Publishing, Cham","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-50344-4_32"},{"key":"2815_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2023.104442","volume":"141","author":"Z Spicer","year":"2023","unstructured":"Spicer Z, Goodman N, Wolfe DA (2023) How \u2018smart\u2019 are smart cities? Resident attitudes towards smart city design. Cities 141:104442. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cities.2023.104442","journal-title":"Cities"},{"issue":"2","key":"2815_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2022.101799","volume":"40","author":"A van Twist","year":"2023","unstructured":"van Twist A, Ruijer E, Meijer A (2023) Smart cities & citizen discontent: a systematic review of the literature. Gov Inf Q 40(2):101799. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.giq.2022.101799","journal-title":"Gov Inf Q"},{"issue":"5","key":"2815_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1177\/0042098013494427","volume":"51","author":"A Vanolo","year":"2014","unstructured":"Vanolo A (2014) Smartmentality: the smart city as disciplinary strategy. Urban Stud 51(5):883\u2013898. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0042098013494427","journal-title":"Urban Stud"},{"issue":"4","key":"2815_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1093\/pan\/mpq025","volume":"18","author":"JK Vermunt","year":"2010","unstructured":"Vermunt JK (2010) Latent class modeling with covariates: two improved three-step approaches. Polit Anal 18(4):450\u2013469. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/pan\/mpq025","journal-title":"Polit Anal"},{"key":"2815_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Valentine G (2025) Age inequality: geography\u2019s overlooked dimension of difference. In: Progress in human geography, 03091325251398859. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/03091325251398859","DOI":"10.1177\/03091325251398859"},{"key":"2815_CR40","unstructured":"Vermunt JK, Magidson J (2025) \u201cLG-syntax user\u2019s guide: manual for LatentGOLD syntax module version 6.1\u201d"},{"key":"2815_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Ham M, Tammaru T, Ubarevi\u010dien\u0117 R, Janssen H (eds) (2021) Urban socio-economic segregation and income inequality: a global perspective. Springer Nature","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-64569-4"},{"key":"2815_CR42","unstructured":"Winner L (2007) Do artifacts have politics?. In: Computer ethics. Routledge"},{"issue":"4","key":"2815_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-024-02079-0","volume":"9","author":"F Xu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Xu F, Wang Qi, Moro E, Chen L, Miranda AS, Gonz\u00e1lez MC, Tizzoni M, Song C, Ratti C, Bettencourt L, Li Y, Evans J (2025) Using human mobility data to quantify experienced urban inequalities. Nat Hum Behav 9(4):654\u2013664. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41562-024-02079-0","journal-title":"Nat Hum Behav"},{"issue":"2","key":"2815_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1111\/area.12716","volume":"53","author":"S Yarker","year":"2021","unstructured":"Yarker S (2021) A research agenda for geographies of everyday intergenerational encounter. Area 53(2):264\u2013271. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/area.12716","journal-title":"Area"},{"issue":"1","key":"2815_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"04015005","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)UP.1943-5444.0000282","volume":"142","author":"I Zubizarreta","year":"2016","unstructured":"Zubizarreta I, Seravalli A, Arrizabalaga S (2016) Smart city concept: what it is and what it should be. J Urban Plann Dev 142(1):04015005. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1061\/(ASCE)UP.1943-5444.0000282","journal-title":"J Urban Plann Dev"}],"container-title":["AI &amp; SOCIETY"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00146-025-02815-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00146-025-02815-8","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00146-025-02815-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T02:20:32Z","timestamp":1780712432000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00146-025-02815-8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["2815"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-025-02815-8","relation":{},"ISSN":["0951-5666","1435-5655"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0951-5666","type":"print"},{"value":"1435-5655","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]]},"assertion":[{"value":"20 October 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"12 December 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"23 December 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}]}}