{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,8]],"date-time":"2026-08-08T21:17:50Z","timestamp":1786223870819,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,7]],"date-time":"2024-06-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717718400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,7]],"date-time":"2024-06-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717718400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vis Comput"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Distributed hybrid rendering (DHR) is a real-time rendering approach that incorporates cloud-based ray tracing with locally rasterized graphics for interactive thin client metaverse and game applications. With cloud assistance, DHR can generate high-fidelity ray-traced graphics contents remotely and deliver them to thin clients with low graphics capability, including standalone extended reality devices and mobile phones, while maintaining interactive frame rates for users under adverse network conditions. DHR can already achieve the effect of ray-traced hard shadows that form with the occlusion of direct illumination. We enhance the realism of these shadows by softening their edges with the direction of rays traced and approximating the occlusion of indirect illumination by reconstructing ray-traced ambient occlusion with a modified version of spatiotemporal variance-guided filtering. Our technique uses only 20\u201330% of the bandwidth of remote rendering and is also tolerant of delays of up to 200\u00a0ms with only slight distortion to the shadows along object edges.\n<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00371-024-03501-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,7]],"date-time":"2024-06-07T04:01:49Z","timestamp":1717732909000},"page":"4981-4991","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["DHR+S: distributed hybrid rendering with realistic real-time shadows for interactive thin client metaverse and game applications"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"40","author":[{"given":"Yu Wei","family":"Tan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Siang Ern","family":"Low","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonas","family":"Chow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Javon","family":"Teo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anand","family":"Bhojan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"3501_CR1","volume-title":"Ray Tracing Gems","author":"C Barr\u00e9-Brisebois","year":"2019","unstructured":"Barr\u00e9-Brisebois, C., Hal\u00e9n, H., Wihlidal, G., Lauritzen, A., Bekkers, J., Stachowiak, T., Andersson, J.: Chapter 25: hybrid rendering for real-time ray tracing. In: Haines, E., Akenine-M\u00f6ller, T. (eds.) Ray Tracing Gems. Apress, New York City (2019)"},{"key":"3501_CR2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"CPU-GPU Hybrid Real Time Ray Tracing Framework","author":"S Beck","year":"1981","unstructured":"Beck, S., Bernstein, A.C., Danch, D., Fr\u00f6hlich, B.: CPU-GPU Hybrid Real Time Ray Tracing Framework, pp. 1\u20138. The Eurographics Association and Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Hoboken (1981)"},{"key":"3501_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bhojan, A., Aw, E.: Gamelets\u2014multiplayer mobile games with distributed micro-clouds. In: Proceedings of the 2014 Seventh International Conference on Mobile Computing and Ubiquitous Networking (ICMU), ICMU 2014, pp. 14\u201320. IEEE Computer Society (2014). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ICMU.2014.6799051","DOI":"10.1109\/ICMU.2014.6799051"},{"key":"3501_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Cantory, V., Ringo, N.: An image-space split-rendering approach to accelerate low-powered virtual reality. In: 2023 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces Abstracts and Workshops (VRW), pp. 893\u2013894 (2023). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/VRW58643.2023.00289","DOI":"10.1109\/VRW58643.2023.00289"},{"key":"3501_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chalmers, A., Debattista, K., dos Santos, L.P.: Selective rendering: Computing only what you see. In: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques in Australasia and Southeast Asia, GRAPHITE \u201906, pp. 9\u201318. ACM, New York, NY, USA (2006). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/1174429.1174431","DOI":"10.1145\/1174429.1174431"},{"issue":"3","key":"3501_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1145\/964965.808590","volume":"18","author":"RL Cook","year":"1984","unstructured":"Cook, R.L., Porter, T., Carpenter, L.: Distributed ray tracing. SIGGRAPH Comput. Graph. 18(3), 137\u2013145 (1984). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/964965.808590","journal-title":"SIGGRAPH Comput. Graph."},{"key":"3501_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Datta, S., Nowrouzezahrai, D., Schied, C., Dong, Z.: Neural shadow mapping. In: ACM SIGGRAPH 2022 Conference Proceedings, SIGGRAPH \u201922. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA (2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3528233.3530700","DOI":"10.1145\/3528233.3530700"},{"key":"3501_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Dhawal, S., KT, A., Narayanan, P.J.: Real-time rendering of arbitrary surface geometries using learnt transfer. In: Proceedings of the Thirteenth Indian Conference on Computer Vision, Graphics and Image Processing, ICVGIP \u201922. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA (2023). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3571600.3571640","DOI":"10.1145\/3571600.3571640"},{"key":"3501_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Fang, H., Okumura, N., Ishii, K., Saito, S.: Distributed rendering on grid computers for multiple users in shared virtual space. In: 2022 International Conference on Cyberworlds (CW), pp. 47\u201354 (2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/CW55638.2022.00016","DOI":"10.1109\/CW55638.2022.00016"},{"key":"3501_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gautron, P.: Advances in spatial hashing: A pragmatic approach towards robust, real-time light transport simulation. In: ACM SIGGRAPH 2022 Talks, SIGGRAPH \u201922. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA (2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3532836.3536239","DOI":"10.1145\/3532836.3536239"},{"key":"3501_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3478513.3480531","author":"J Guo","year":"2021","unstructured":"Guo, J., Fu, X., Lin, L., Ma, H., Guo, Y., Liu, S., Yan, L.Q.: Extranet: Real-time extrapolated rendering for low-latency temporal supersampling. ACM Trans. Graph. (2021). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3478513.3480531","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Graph."},{"key":"3501_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Jiang, H., Padebettu, R.R., Sakamoto, K., Bastani, B.: Architecture of integrated machine learning in low latency mobile vr graphics pipeline. In: SIGGRAPH Asia 2019 Technical Briefs, SA \u201919, p. 41-44. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA (2019). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3355088.3365154","DOI":"10.1145\/3355088.3365154"},{"key":"3501_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Keinert, B., Martschinke, J., Stamminger, M.: Learning real-time ambient occlusion from distance representations. In: Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH Symposium on Interactive 3D Graphics and Games, I3D \u201918. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA (2018). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3190834.3190847","DOI":"10.1145\/3190834.3190847"},{"key":"3501_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Laine, S., Karras, T.: Two methods for fast ray-cast ambient occlusion. In: Proceedings of the 21st Eurographics Conference on Rendering, EGSR\u201910, p. 1325-1333. Eurographics Association, Goslar, DEU (2010). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1467-8659.2010.01728.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8659.2010.01728.x"},{"key":"3501_CR15","unstructured":"Landis, H.: Production-ready global illumination (2004). https:\/\/www.scinapse.io\/papers\/65018654"},{"key":"3501_CR16","unstructured":"Lauterbach, C., Manocha, D.: Fast hard and soft shadow generation on complex models using selective ray tracing. Technical report tr09-004, UNC CS (2009)"},{"key":"3501_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Le, B.H., Halen, H., Gonzalez-Ochoa, C., Lewis, J.: High-quality object-space dynamic ambient occlusion for characters using bi-level regression. In: Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH Symposium on Interactive 3D Graphics and Games, I3D \u201919. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA (2019). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3306131.3317029","DOI":"10.1145\/3306131.3317029"},{"key":"3501_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.133.2200524","author":"L Li","year":"2023","unstructured":"Li, L., Huang, Y., Qiao, X., Meng, Y., Yu, D., Ren, P., Dustdar, S.: Towards distributed collaborative rendering service for immersive mobile web. IEEE Netw. (2023). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/MNET.133.2200524","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"3501_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lin, C., Zhan, Y., Yang, Z., Lv, J., Zhang, Q., Yu, W.: Accelerated detail-enhanced ambient occlusion. In: 2019 IEEE International Conference on Image Processing (ICIP), pp. 529\u2013533 (2019). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ICIP.2019.8803809","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIP.2019.8803809"},{"key":"3501_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Liu, D., Wei, L., Zheng, Q., Ding, P., Shen, Y.: Design and implementation of distributed rendering system. In: 2022 IEEE Smartworld, Ubiquitous Intelligence and Computing, Scalable Computing and Communications, Digital Twin, Privacy Computing, Metaverse, Autonomous and Trusted Vehicles (SmartWorld\/UIC\/ScalCom\/DigitalTwin\/PriComp\/Meta), pp. 2366\u20132371 (2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/SmartWorld-UIC-ATC-ScalCom-DigitalTwin-PriComp-Metaverse56740.2022.00332","DOI":"10.1109\/SmartWorld-UIC-ATC-ScalCom-DigitalTwin-PriComp-Metaverse56740.2022.00332"},{"key":"3501_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lu, E., Bharadwaj, S., Dasari, M., Smith, C., Seshan, S., Rowe, A.: Renderfusion: Balancing local and remote rendering for interactive 3D scenes. In: 2023 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR), pp. 312\u2013321 (2023). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ISMAR59233.2023.00046","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMAR59233.2023.00046"},{"key":"3501_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ma, B., Zhang, Z., Li, Y., Cai, W., Wang, G., Liu, X.: Spider: An effective, efficient and robust load scheduler for real-time split frame rendering. In: 2022 IEEE International Parallel and Distributed Processing Symposium (IPDPS), pp. 672\u2013682 (2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/IPDPS53621.2022.00071","DOI":"10.1109\/IPDPS53621.2022.00071"},{"key":"3501_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Schied, C., Kaplanyan, A., Wyman, C., Patney, A., Chaitanya, C.R.A., Burgess, J., Liu, S., Dachsbacher, C., Lefohn, A., Salvi, M.: Spatiotemporal variance-guided filtering: real-time reconstruction for path-traced global illumination. In: Proceedings of High Performance Graphics, HPG \u201917. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA (2017). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3105762.3105770","DOI":"10.1145\/3105762.3105770"},{"key":"3501_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Shen, H., Li, X., Ji, H., Zhang, H.: DIBR-based collaborative computation in edge network for multiplayer online VR game. In: 2023 IEEE International Conference on Communications Workshops (ICC Workshops), pp. 1451\u20131456 (2023). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ICCWorkshops57953.2023.10283486","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCWorkshops57953.2023.10283486"},{"key":"3501_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sheng, Y., Zhang, J., Benes, B.: SSN: soft shadow network for image compositing. In: 2021 IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), pp. 4378\u20134388 (2021). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/CVPR46437.2021.00436","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR46437.2021.00436"},{"key":"3501_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3522614","author":"P Shi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Shi, P., Billeter, M., Eisemann, E.: Stereo-consistent screen-space ambient occlusion. Proc. ACM Comput. Graph. Interact. Tech. (2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3522614","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Comput. Graph. Interact. Tech."},{"key":"3501_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TCE.2023.3328051","author":"Q Sun","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sun, Q., Wang, Z., Leung, C.S., Xiao, Y.: Real-time lighting effects for consumer-grade mobile graphics hardware. IEEE Trans. Consum. Electron. (2023). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TCE.2023.3328051","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Consum. Electron."},{"key":"3501_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Tan, Y.W., Chua, N., Koh, C., Bhojan, A.: RTSDF: Real-time signed distance fields for soft shadow approximation in games. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Joint Conference on Computer Vision, Imaging and Computer Graphics Theory and Applications - GRAPP, pp. 302\u2013309. INSTICC, SciTePress (2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5220\/0010996200003124","DOI":"10.5220\/0010996200003124"},{"key":"3501_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Tan, Y.W., Tan, A., Nge, N., Bhojan, A.: Dhr: Distributed hybrid rendering for metaverse experiences. In: Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Interactive EXtended Reality, IXR \u201922, p. 51-59. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA (2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3552483.3556455","DOI":"10.1145\/3552483.3556455"},{"key":"3501_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Tewari, A., Fried, O., Thies, J., Sitzmann, V., Lombardi, S., Sunkavalli, K., Martin-Brualla, R., Simon, T., Saragih, J., Nie\u00dfner, M., Pandey, R., Fanello, S., Wetzstein, G., Zhu, J.Y., Theobalt, C., Agrawala, M., Shechtman, E., Goldman, D.B., Zollh\u00f6fer, M.: State of the art on neural rendering. Comput. Graph. Forum 39(2), 701\u2013727 (2020). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/cgf.14022","DOI":"10.1111\/cgf.14022"},{"key":"3501_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neunet.2020.07.025","volume":"131","author":"C Tian","year":"2020","unstructured":"Tian, C., Fei, L., Zheng, W., Xu, Y., Zuo, W., Lin, C.W.: Deep learning on image denoising: an overview. Neural Netw. 131, 251\u2013275 (2020)","journal-title":"Neural Netw."},{"key":"3501_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Vermeer, J., Scandolo, L., Eisemann, E.: Stochastic-depth ambient occlusion. Proc. ACM Comput. Graph. Interact. Tech. (2021). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3451268","DOI":"10.1145\/3451268"},{"key":"3501_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Weinrauch, A., Tatzgern, W., Stadlbauer, P., Crickx, A., Hladky, J., Coomans, A., Winter, M., Mueller, J.H., Steinberger, M.: Effect-based multi-viewer caching for cloud-native rendering. ACM Trans. Graph. (2023). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3592431","DOI":"10.1145\/3592431"},{"issue":"2","key":"3501_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1145\/965103.807419","volume":"13","author":"T Whitted","year":"1979","unstructured":"Whitted, T.: An improved illumination model for shaded display. SIGGRAPH Comput. Graph. 13(2), 14 (1979). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/965103.807419","journal-title":"SIGGRAPH Comput. Graph."},{"key":"3501_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3386569.3392376","author":"L Xiao","year":"2020","unstructured":"Xiao, L., Nouri, S., Chapman, M., Fix, A., Lanman, D., Kaplanyan, A.: Neural supersampling for real-time rendering. ACM Trans. Graph. (2020). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3386569.3392376","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Graph."},{"key":"3501_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3522617","author":"Y Xu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Xu, Y., Jiang, Y., Zhang, J., Li, K., Geng, G.: Real-time ray-traced soft shadows of environmental lighting by conical ray culling. Proc. ACM Comput. Graph. Interact. Tech. (2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3522617","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Comput. Graph. Interact. Tech."},{"key":"3501_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"64434","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2984771","volume":"8","author":"D Zhang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Zhang, D., Xian, C., Luo, G., Xiong, Y., Han, C.: Deepao: efficient screen space ambient occlusion generation via deep network. IEEE Access 8, 64434\u201364441 (2020). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2984771","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"3501_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zhou, L., Lambert, J., Zheng, Y., Li, Z., Yen, A., Liu, S., Ye, V., Zhou, M., Mahar, D., Gibbons, J., Satterlee, M.: Distributed scalable edge computing infrastructure for open metaverse. In: 2023 IEEE Cloud Summit, pp. 1\u20136 (2023). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/CloudSummit57601.2023.00007","DOI":"10.1109\/CloudSummit57601.2023.00007"},{"key":"3501_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zhukov, S., Iones, A., Kronin, G.: An ambient light illumination model. In: G.\u00a0Drettakis, N.L. Max (eds.) Rendering Techniques \u201998, Proceedings of the Eurographics Workshop in Vienna, Austria, June 29 - July 1, 1998, Eurographics, pp. 45\u201355. Springer (1998). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-7091-6453-2_5","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-7091-6453-2_5"}],"container-title":["The Visual Computer"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00371-024-03501-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00371-024-03501-4\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00371-024-03501-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,4]],"date-time":"2024-07-04T15:15:54Z","timestamp":1720106154000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00371-024-03501-4"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,7]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,7]]}},"alternative-id":["3501"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00371-024-03501-4","relation":{},"ISSN":["0178-2789","1432-2315"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0178-2789","type":"print"},{"value":"1432-2315","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,7]]},"assertion":[{"value":"16 May 2024","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"7 June 2024","order":2,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}]}}