{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T19:37:29Z","timestamp":1780515449388,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2004,5,1]],"date-time":"2004-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1083369600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springer.com\/tdm"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2004,5,1]],"date-time":"2004-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1083369600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springer.com\/tdm"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biol. Cybern."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2004,5]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s00422-004-0484-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2004,6,24]],"date-time":"2004-06-24T17:54:32Z","timestamp":1088099672000},"page":"368-375","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":124,"title":["A model of force and impedance in human arm movements"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"90","author":[{"given":"K. P.","family":"Tee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"E.","family":"Burdet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"C. M.","family":"Chew","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"T. E.","family":"Milner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2004,6,14]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"484_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02259118","volume":"88","author":"DJ Bennett","year":"1992","unstructured":"Bennett DJ, Hollerbach JM, Xu Y, Hunter IW (1992) Time-varying of human elbow joint during cyclic voluntary movement. Exp Brain Res 88(2): 433\u2013442","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"issue":"3","key":"484_CR2","first-page":"488","volume":"95","author":"DJ Bennett","year":"1993","unstructured":"Bennett DJ (1993) Torques generated at the human elbow joint in response to constant position errors imposed during voluntary movement. Exp Brain Res 95(3): 488\u2013498","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"key":"484_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bicchi A, Rizzini SL, Tonietti G (2001) Compliant design for intrinsic safety: general issues and preliminary design. In: Proceedings of IEEE\/RSJ international conference of intelligent robots and systems, pp 1864\u20131869","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2001.976345"},{"key":"484_CR4","unstructured":"Burdet E, Osu R, Franklin DW, Milner TE, Kawato M (1999) Measuring endpoint stiffness during multi-joint arm movements. In: Proceedings of ASME symposium on haptic interfaces and virtual environments for teleoperator systems, pp 421\u2013428"},{"issue":"12","key":"484_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1705","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9290(00)00142-1","volume":"33","author":"E Burdet","year":"2000","unstructured":"Burdet E, Osu R, Franklin DW, Yoshioka T, Milner TE, Kawato M (2000) A method for measuring endpoint stiffness during multi-joint arm movements. J Biomech 33(12): 1705\u20131709","journal-title":"J Biomech"},{"key":"484_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1038\/35106566","volume":"414","author":"E Burdet","year":"2001","unstructured":"Burdet E, Osu R, Franklin DW, Milner TE, Kawato M (2001) The central nervous system skillfully stabilizes unstable dynamics by learning optimal impedance. Nature 414: 446\u2013449","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"484_CR7","unstructured":"Burdet E, Franklin DW, Osu R, Tee KP, Kawato M, Milner TE (2004) How are internal models of unstable tasks formed? In: Proceedings of IEEE international conference on engineering in medicine and biology"},{"key":"484_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1080\/00207178808906161","volume":"48","author":"JE Colgate","year":"1988","unstructured":"Colgate JE and Hogan N (1988) Robust control of dynamically interacting systems. Int J Control 48: 65\u201388","journal-title":"Int J Control"},{"issue":"1","key":"484_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1997.78.1.554","volume":"78","author":"MA Conditt","year":"1997","unstructured":"Conditt MA, Mussa-Ivaldi FA (1997) The motor system does not learn the dynamics of the arm by rote memorization of past experience. J Neurophysiol 78(1): 554\u2013560","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"key":"484_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Wit CC, Siciliano B, Bastin G (1996) Theory of robot control. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4471-1501-4"},{"key":"484_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1688","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.05-07-01688.1985","volume":"5","author":"T Flash","year":"1985","unstructured":"Flash T, Hogan N (1985) The co-ordination of arm movements: an experimentally confirmed mathematical model. J Neurosci 5: 1688\u20131703","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"issue":"2","key":"484_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00231251","volume":"82","author":"T Flash","year":"1990","unstructured":"Flash T, Mussa-Ivaldi FA (1990) Human arm stiffness characteristics during the maintenance of posture. Exp Brain Res 82(2): 315\u2013326","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"issue":"2","key":"484_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-003-1540-3","volume":"152","author":"DW Franklin","year":"2003a","unstructured":"Franklin DW, Milner TE (2003a) Adaptive control of stiffness to stabilize hand position with large loads. Exp Brain Res 152(2): 211\u2013220","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"key":"484_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-003-1443-3","volume":"151","author":"DW Franklin","year":"2003b","unstructured":"Franklin DW, Burdet E, Osu R, Kawato M, Milner TE (2003b) Functional significance of stiffness in adaptation of multijoint arm movements to stable and unstable dynamics. Exp Brain Res 151: 145\u2013157","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"key":"484_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3270","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.01112.2002","volume":"90","author":"DW Franklin","year":"2003c","unstructured":"Franklin DW, Osu R, Burdet E, Kawato M, Milner TE (2003c) Adaptation to stable and unstable dynamics achieved by combined impedance control and inverse dynamics model. J Neurophysiol 90: 3270\u20133282","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"484_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1007\/s004220050329","volume":"76","author":"H Gomi","year":"1997","unstructured":"Gomi H, Kawato M (1997) Human arm stiffness and equilibrium point trajectory during multi-joint movement. Biol Cybern 76(3): 163\u2013171","journal-title":"Biol Cybern"},{"key":"484_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8965","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.18-21-08965.1998","volume":"18","author":"H Gomi","year":"1998","unstructured":"Gomi H, Osu R (1998) Task-dependent viscoelasticity of human multijoint arm and its spatial characteristics for interaction with environments. J Neurosci 18: 8965\u20138978","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"484_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1016\/S0959-4388(99)00028-8","volume":"9","author":"M Kawato","year":"1999","unstructured":"Kawato M (1999) Internal models for motor control and trajecotry planning. Curr Opin Neurobiol 9: 718\u2013727","journal-title":"Curr Opin Neurobiol"},{"key":"484_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1994.72.1.299","volume":"72","author":"JR Lackner","year":"1994","unstructured":"Lackner JR, Dizio P (1994) Rapid adaptation to Coriolis force perturbations of arm trajectory. J Neurophysiol 72: 299\u2013313","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"484_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00227793","volume":"93","author":"TE Milner","year":"1993","unstructured":"Milner TE (1993) Dependence of elbow viscoelastic behaviour on speed and loading in voluntary movements. Exp Brain Res 93(1): 177\u2013180","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"key":"484_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00230210","volume":"94","author":"TE Milner","year":"1993","unstructured":"Milner TE, Cloutier C (1993) Compensation for mechanically unstable loading in voluntary wrist movement. Exp Brain Res 94: 522\u2013532","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"issue":"10","key":"484_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2732","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.05-10-02732.1985","volume":"5","author":"FA Mussa-Ivaldi","year":"1985","unstructured":"Mussa-Ivaldi FA, Hogan N, Bizzi E (1985) Neural, mechanical, and geometric factors subserving arm posture in humans. J Neurosci 5(10): 2732\u20132743","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"484_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3255","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00073.2003","volume":"90","author":"R Osu","year":"2003","unstructured":"Osu R, Burdet E, Franklin DW, Milner TE, Kawato M (2003) Different mechanisms involved in adaptation to stable and unstable dynamics. J Neurophysiol 90: 3255\u20133269","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"484_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1007\/s002210100880","volume":"141","author":"EJ Perreault","year":"2001","unstructured":"Perreault EJ, Kirsch RF, Crago PE (2001) Effects of voluntary force generation on the elastic components of endpoint stiffness. Exp Brain Res 141(3): 312\u2013323","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"issue":"6","key":"484_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2808","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.2002.87.6.2808","volume":"87","author":"EJ Perreault","year":"2002","unstructured":"Perreault EJ, Kirsch RF, Crago PE (2002) Voluntary control of static endpoint stiffness during force regulation tasks. J Neurophysiol 87(6): 2808\u20132816","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"issue":"4","key":"484_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1080\/00222890109601919","volume":"33","author":"D Rancourt","year":"2001","unstructured":"Rancourt D, Hogan N (2001) Dynamics of pushing. J Mot Behav 33(4): 351\u2013362","journal-title":"J Mot Behav"},{"key":"484_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.86.5.415","volume":"47","author":"RA Schmidt","year":"1979","unstructured":"Schmidt RA, Zelaznik H, Hawkins B, Frank JS, Quinn JT (1979) Motor output variability: a theory for the accuracy of rapid motor acts. Psychol Rev 47: 415\u2013451","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"issue":"5","key":"484_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3208","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.14-05-03208.1994","volume":"14","author":"R Shadmehr","year":"1994","unstructured":"Shadmehr R, Mussa-Ivaldi FA (1994) Adaptive representation of dynamics during learning of motor tasks. J Neurosci 14(5): 3208\u20133224","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"484_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1126\/science.277.5327.821","volume":"277","author":"R Shadmehr","year":"1997","unstructured":"Shadmehr R, Holcomb HH (1997) Neural correlates of motor memory consolidation. Science 277: 821\u2013825","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"3","key":"484_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.25.3.837","volume":"25","author":"AB Slifkin","year":"1999","unstructured":"Slifkin AB, Newell KM (1999) Noise, information transmission, and force variability. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 25(3): 837\u2013851","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform"},{"key":"484_CR31","unstructured":"Surgical robots (2004) http:\/\/www.computermotion.com\/ productsandsolutions\/products\/zeus\/index. cfm;http:\/\/www.intuitivesurgical.com\/products\/da-vinci.html"},{"issue":"19","key":"484_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8573","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.19-19-08573.1999","volume":"19","author":"KA Thoroughman","year":"1999","unstructured":"Thoroughman KA, Shadmehr R (1999) Electromyographic correlates of learning an internal model of reaching movements. J Neurosci 19(19): 8573\u20138588","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"issue":"6","key":"484_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00199890","volume":"72","author":"T Tsuji","year":"1995","unstructured":"Tsuji T, Morasso PG, Goto K, Ito K (1995) Human hand impedance characteristics during maintained posture. Biol Cyber 72(6): 475\u2013485","journal-title":"Biol Cyber"},{"key":"484_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang H, Burdet E, Hutmacher DW, Poo AN, Bellouard Y, Clavel R, Sidler T (2002) Robotic micro-assembly of scaffold\/cell constructs with a shape memory alloy gripper. In: Proceedings of the IEEE international conference on robotics and automation, pp 1483\u20131488","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.2002.1014753"}],"container-title":["Biological Cybernetics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00422-004-0484-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00422-004-0484-4\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00422-004-0484-4","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00422-004-0484-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,5]],"date-time":"2022-02-05T04:33:30Z","timestamp":1644035610000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00422-004-0484-4"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2004,5]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2004,5]]}},"alternative-id":["484"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00422-004-0484-4","relation":{},"ISSN":["0340-1200","1432-0770"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0340-1200","type":"print"},{"value":"1432-0770","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2004,5]]},"assertion":[{"value":"24 July 2003","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 April 2004","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"14 June 2004","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}}]}}