{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T18:26:06Z","timestamp":1780424766916,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"30","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,20]],"date-time":"2023-11-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700438400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,20]],"date-time":"2023-11-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700438400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100020950","name":"National Science and Technology Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MOST 110-2221-E-003-001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 110-2221-E-003-001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100020950","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100020595","name":"National Science and Technology Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["112-2425-H-003-006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["112-2425-H-003-006"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100020595","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Neural Comput & Applic"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s00521-023-09134-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,20]],"date-time":"2023-11-20T02:02:31Z","timestamp":1700445751000},"page":"24499-24515","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Adaptive road shoulder traffic control with reinforcement learning approach"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"37","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7993-525X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yao-Hua","family":"Ho","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tung-Chun","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"9134_CR1","unstructured":"Freeway Bureau (2023) Ministry of Transportation and Communications (MOTC), Taiwan. Real-time traffic information. Available: https:\/\/1968.freeway.gov.tw\/. Accessed Feb 2023"},{"key":"9134_CR2","unstructured":"Civil Internet of Things (IoT) Taiwan Project (2023) Available: https:\/\/ci.taiwan.gov.tw\/. Accessed April 2023"},{"issue":"4","key":"9134_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"045406","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/acb075","volume":"34","author":"L Shen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Shen L, Tao H, Ni Y, Wang Y, Stojanovic V (2023) Improved YOLOv3 model with feature map cropping for multi-scale road object detection. Meas Sci Technol 34(4):045406. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/1361-6501\/acb075","journal-title":"Meas Sci Technol"},{"key":"9134_CR4","unstructured":"Freeway Bureau (2020) Ministry of Transportation and Communications (MOTC), Taiwan. Highway and expressway traffic control regulations, Taiwan national regulation database. Available: https:\/\/law.moj.gov.tw\/LawClass\/LawAll.aspx?pcode= K0040019. Accessed Feb 20 2023"},{"key":"9134_CR5","unstructured":"Freeway Bureau (2023) Ministry of Transportation and Communications (MOTC), Taiwan. Regulations on the implementation of open shoulder on national highway main lines, Taiwan. Available: https:\/\/www.freeway.gov.tw\/Upload\/DownloadFiles\/%E5 %9C%8B%E9%81%93%E4%B8%BB%E7%B7%9A%E5%AF%A6%E6%96%BD%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE%E8%B7%AF%E8%82%A9%E4%BD%9C%E6%A5%AD%E8%A6%8F%E5%AE%9A_005361.pdf. Accessed April 20 2023"},{"issue":"10","key":"9134_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trb.2004.12.001","volume":"39","author":"MJ Cassidy","year":"2005","unstructured":"Cassidy MJ, Rudjanakanoknad J (2005) Increasing the capacity of an isolated merge by metering its on-ramp. Transp Res Part B Methodol 39(10):896\u2013913","journal-title":"Transp Res Part B Methodol"},{"issue":"1","key":"9134_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trb.2006.02.011","volume":"41","author":"K Chung","year":"2007","unstructured":"Chung K, Rudjanakanoknad J, Cassidy MJ (2007) Relation between traffic density and capacity drop at three freeway bottlenecks. Transp Res Part B Methodol 41(1):82\u201395","journal-title":"Transp Res Part B Methodol"},{"issue":"4","key":"9134_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2010.01.004","volume":"44","author":"L Zhang","year":"2011","unstructured":"Zhang L, Levinson D (2011) Ramp metering and freeway bottleneck capacity. Transp Res Part A Policy Pract 44(4):218\u2013235","journal-title":"Transp Res Part A Policy Pract"},{"issue":"11","key":"9134_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3204","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2017.2687620","volume":"18","author":"Z Li","year":"2017","unstructured":"Li Z, Liu P, Xu C, Duan H, Wang W (2017) Reinforcement learning-based variable speed limit control strategy to reduce traffic congestion at freeway recurrent bottlenecks. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst 18(11):3204\u20133217","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst"},{"issue":"6","key":"9134_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3249","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2015.2441373","volume":"16","author":"H Liu","year":"2015","unstructured":"Liu H, Zhang L, Sun D, Wang D (2015) Optimize the settings of variable speed limit system to improve the performance of freeway traffic. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst 16(6):3249\u20133257","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst"},{"issue":"1","key":"9134_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2004.842408","volume":"6","author":"A Hegyi","year":"2005","unstructured":"Hegyi A, De Schutter B, Hellendoorn J (2005) Optimal coordination of variable speed limits to suppress shock waves. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst 6(1):102\u2013112","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst"},{"issue":"2","key":"9134_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2009.05.014","volume":"18","author":"RC Carlson","year":"2010","unstructured":"Carlson RC, Papamichail I, Papageorgiou M, Messmer A (2010) Optimal mainstream traffic flow control of large-scale motorway networks. Transp Res Part C Emerg Technol 18(2):193\u2013212","journal-title":"Transp Res Part C Emerg Technol"},{"issue":"4","key":"9134_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2011.2156792","volume":"12","author":"RC Carlson","year":"2011","unstructured":"Carlson RC, Papamichail I, Papageorgious M (2011) Local feedback-based mainstream traffic flow control on motorways using variable speed limits. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst 12(4):1261\u20131276","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst"},{"issue":"2","key":"9134_CR14","first-page":"610","volume":"16","author":"G Iordanidou","year":"2015","unstructured":"Iordanidou G, Roncoli C, Papamichail I, PaPageorgious M (2015) Feedback-based mainstream traffic flow control for multiple bottlenecks on motorways. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst 16(2):610\u2013621","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst"},{"issue":"7","key":"9134_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1812","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2016.2616493","volume":"18","author":"Y Zhang","year":"2017","unstructured":"Zhang Y, Ioannou PA (2017) Combined variable speed limit and lane change control for highway traffic. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst 18(7):1812\u20131823","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst"},{"issue":"18","key":"9134_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10139","DOI":"10.1002\/rnc.6354","volume":"32","author":"C Zhou","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zhou C, Tao H, Chen Y, Stojanovic V, Paszke W (2022) Robust point-to-point iterative learning control for constrained systems: a minimum energy approach. Intl J Robust Nonlinear 32(18):10139\u201310161. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/rnc.6354","journal-title":"Intl J Robust Nonlinear"},{"issue":"11","key":"9134_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1177\/0361198120949875","volume":"2674","author":"W Zhou","year":"2020","unstructured":"Zhou W, Yang M, Lee M, Zhang L (2020) Q-learning-based coordinated variable speed limit and hard shoulder running control strategy to reduce travel time at freeway corridor. Transp Res Rec 2674(11):915\u2013925","journal-title":"Transp Res Rec"},{"key":"9134_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41947","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2904619","volume":"7","author":"C Wang","year":"2019","unstructured":"Wang C, Zhang J, Xu L, Li L, Ran B (2019) A new solution for freeway congestion: cooperative speed limit control using distributed reinforcement learning. IEEE Access 7:41947\u201341957","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"issue":"3","key":"9134_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-947X(2003)129:3(278)","volume":"29","author":"B Abdulhai","year":"2003","unstructured":"Abdulhai B, Pringle R, Karakoulas GJ (2003) Reinforcement learning for true adaptive traffic signal control. J Transp Eng 29(3):278\u2013285","journal-title":"J Transp Eng"},{"key":"9134_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rezaee, K.; Abdulhai, B.; Abdelgawad, H. (2012) \u201cApplication of reinforcement learning with continuous state space to ramp metering in real-world conditions\u201d. In: IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC.2012.6338837"},{"key":"9134_CR21","volume-title":"\"Reinforcement learning: an introduction","author":"RS Sutton","year":"2018","unstructured":"Sutton RS, Barto AG (2018) \"Reinforcement learning: an introduction. MIT Press, Second, Cambridge"},{"key":"9134_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szepesv\u00e1ri C. (2010) Algorithms for reinforcement learning. Morgan & Claypool Publishers","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-01551-9"},{"key":"9134_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1613\/jair.301","volume":"4","author":"LP Kaelbling","year":"1996","unstructured":"Kaelbling LP, Littman ML, Moore AW (1996) Reinforcement learning: a survey. J Artif Intell Res 4:237\u2013285","journal-title":"J Artif Intell Res"},{"key":"9134_CR24","unstructured":"Eitan A. (1999) Constrained markov decision processes. CRC Press"},{"key":"9134_CR25","first-page":"387","volume-title":"Partially observable markov decision processes","author":"MTJ Spaan","year":"2012","unstructured":"Spaan MTJ (2012) Partially observable markov decision processes. Reinforcement Learning, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 387\u2013414"},{"key":"9134_CR26","unstructured":"Jaakola, T. Singh, S.P. Jordan, M.I (1999) Reinforcement learning algorithm for partially observable markov decision problems. Adv Neural Inf Process Syst"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"9134_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/S0004-3702(99)00052-1","volume":"112","author":"RS Sutton","year":"1999","unstructured":"Sutton RS, Precup D, Singh SP (1999) MDPs and semi-MDPs: a framework for temporal abstraction in reinforcement learning. Artif Intell 112(1\u20132):181\u2013211","journal-title":"Artif Intell"},{"issue":"3","key":"9134_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1145\/203330.203343","volume":"38","author":"G Teasuro","year":"1995","unstructured":"Teasuro G (1995) Temporal difference learning and TD-Gammon. Commun ACM 38(3):58\u201368","journal-title":"Commun ACM"},{"key":"9134_CR29","unstructured":"Watkins, C. (1989) Learning from delayed rewards. Cambridge University, Ph.D. thesis"},{"key":"9134_CR30","unstructured":"Freeway Bureau, (2023) Ministry of Transportation and Communications (MOTC), Taiwan. Traffic database VD 5 Min. Live Data (V 1.1). Available: https:\/\/tisvcloud.freeway.gov.tw\/history\/vd\/. Accessed Jan 30 2023"},{"key":"9134_CR31","volume-title":"Statistical physics course of theoretical physics","author":"LD Landau","year":"1980","unstructured":"Landau LD, Lifshitz EM (1980) Statistical physics course of theoretical physics, 3rd edn. Oxford Pergamon Press, Oxford (ISBN 0-7506-3372-7)","edition":"3"},{"key":"9134_CR32","volume-title":"KI 2010: advances in artificial intelligence KI 2010 lecture notes in computer science","author":"M Tokic","year":"2010","unstructured":"Tokic M (2010) Adaptive \u03b5-greedy exploration in reinforcement learning based on value differences. In: Dillmann R, Beyerer J, Hanebeck UD, Schultz T (eds) KI 2010: advances in artificial intelligence KI 2010 lecture notes in computer science, vol 6359. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg"},{"key":"9134_CR33","unstructured":"Behrisch, M. Bieker, M. Erdmann, J. Krajzewicz, D. (2011) SUMO - Simulation of Urban MObility: an overview. Adv Syst Simul, SIMUL 11"},{"key":"9134_CR34","unstructured":"OpenStreetMap Foundation (OSMF), (2023) \u201cOpenStreetMap\u201d, openstreetmap.org. Available: https:\/\/www.openstreetmap.org. Accessed Jan 30 2023"}],"container-title":["Neural Computing and Applications"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00521-023-09134-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00521-023-09134-3\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00521-023-09134-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T12:37:19Z","timestamp":1760013439000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00521-023-09134-3"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,20]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"30","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["9134"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00521-023-09134-3","relation":{},"ISSN":["0941-0643","1433-3058"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0941-0643","type":"print"},{"value":"1433-3058","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,20]]},"assertion":[{"value":"3 May 2023","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 October 2023","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"20 November 2023","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"We claim this paper has no conflict of interest. All of the authors agree with the submission. We have included the foundation organization to support this study.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}]}}