{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,6]],"date-time":"2026-05-06T06:13:04Z","timestamp":1778047984121,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,6]],"date-time":"2026-05-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778025600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,6]],"date-time":"2026-05-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778025600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Multimedia Systems"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s00530-026-02238-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,6]],"date-time":"2026-05-06T05:22:35Z","timestamp":1778044955000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Improving localization precision in open-vocabulary object detection through reinforcement learning-based model collaboration"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"32","author":[{"given":"Xudong","family":"Yao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Han","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hao","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaoshan","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"2238_CR1","first-page":"384","volume-title":"Proceedings of the European conference on computer vision (ECCV)","author":"A Bansal","year":"2018","unstructured":"Bansal, A., Sikka, K., Sharma, G., et al.: Zero-shot object detection. In: Proceedings of the European conference on computer vision (ECCV), pp. 384\u2013400. Springer, Cham (2018)"},{"key":"2238_CR2","first-page":"164","volume-title":"Deep learning for image processing applications","author":"MB Bueno","year":"2017","unstructured":"Bueno, M.B., Gir\u00f3-i Nieto, X., Marqu\u00e9s, F., et al.: Hierarchical object detection with deep reinforcement learning. In: Deep learning for image processing applications, pp. 164\u2013176. IOS Press, Amsterdam (2017)"},{"key":"2238_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1018054314350","volume":"24","author":"L Breiman","year":"1996","unstructured":"Breiman, L.: Bagging predictors. Mach. Learn. 24, 123\u2013140 (1996)","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"2238_CR4","first-page":"2488","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE international conference on computer vision","author":"JC Caicedo","year":"2015","unstructured":"Caicedo, J.C., Lazebnik, S.: Active object localization with deep reinforcement learning. In: Proceedings of the IEEE international conference on computer vision, pp. 2488\u20132496. IEEE, Geneva (2015)"},{"key":"2238_CR5","first-page":"213","volume-title":"European conference on computer vision","author":"N Carion","year":"2020","unstructured":"Carion, N., Massa, F., Synnaeve, G., et al.: End-to-end object detection with transformers. In: European conference on computer vision, pp. 213\u2013229. Springer, Cham (2020)"},{"key":"2238_CR6","unstructured":"Chen, K., Wang, J., Pang, J., et\u00a0al.: MMDetection: Open mmlab detection toolbox and benchmark. arXiv preprint arXiv:1906.07155 (2019)"},{"key":"2238_CR7","first-page":"2141","volume-title":"Proceedings of the AAAI conference on artificial intelligence","author":"Q Chen","year":"2025","unstructured":"Chen, Q., Jin, W., Ge, J., et al.: CP-DETR: concept prompt guide DETR toward stronger universal object detection. In: Proceedings of the AAAI conference on artificial intelligence, pp. 2141\u20132149. AAAI, Washington DC (2025)"},{"key":"2238_CR8","first-page":"16901","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF conference on computer vision and pattern recognition","author":"T Cheng","year":"2024","unstructured":"Cheng, T., Song, L., Ge, Y., et al.: Yolo-world: real-time open-vocabulary object detection. In: Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 16901\u201316911. IEEE, Geneva (2024)"},{"key":"2238_CR9","unstructured":"Devlin, J., Chang, M.W., Lee, K. et\u00a0al.: Bert: Pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. arXiv preprint arXiv:1810.04805 (2018)"},{"key":"2238_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1109\/TMM.2025.3632649","volume":"28","author":"Z Fang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Fang, Z., Wu, Y., Ren, J., et al.: CAS-OVD: cascaded open-vocabulary detection of small objects using multi-refined region proposal network in autonomous driving. IEEE Trans. Multimedia 28, 757\u2013771 (2025)","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Multimedia"},{"key":"2238_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-59119-2_166","volume-title":"European conference on computational learning theory","author":"Y Freund","year":"1995","unstructured":"Freund, Y., Schapire, R.E.: A decision-theoretic generalization of on-line learning and an application to boosting. In: European conference on computational learning theory, pp. 23\u201337. Springer, Cham (1995)"},{"key":"2238_CR12","first-page":"247","volume-title":"European conference on computer vision","author":"Y Fu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Fu, Y., Wang, Y., Pan, Y., et al.: Cross-domain few-shot object detection via enhanced open-set object detector. In: European conference on computer vision, pp. 247\u2013264. Springer, Cham (2024)"},{"key":"2238_CR13","first-page":"580","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition","author":"R Girshick","year":"2014","unstructured":"Girshick, R., Donahue, J., Darrell, T., et al.: Rich feature hierarchies for accurate object detection and semantic segmentation. In: Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 580\u2013587. IEEE, Geneva (2014)"},{"key":"2238_CR14","unstructured":"Gu, X., Lin, T.Y., Kuo, W., et\u00a0al.: Open-vocabulary object detection via vision and language knowledge distillation. arXiv preprint arXiv:2104.13921 (2021)"},{"key":"2238_CR15","unstructured":"Guo, D., Yang, D., Zhang, H., et\u00a0al.: Deepseek-r1: Incentivizing reasoning capability in llms via reinforcement learning. arXiv preprint arXiv:2501.12948 (2025)"},{"key":"2238_CR16","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition","author":"A Gupta","year":"2019","unstructured":"Gupta, A., Dollar, P., Girshick, R.: LVIS a dataset for large vocabulary instance segmentation. In: Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition. IEEE, Geneva (2019)"},{"key":"2238_CR17","unstructured":"Hinton, G., Vinyals, O., Dean, J.: Distilling the knowledge in a neural network. arXiv preprint arXiv:1503.02531 (2015)"},{"key":"2238_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, J., Zhang, J., Jiang, K., et\u00a0al.: Open-vocabulary object detection via language hierarchy. arXiv preprint arXiv:2410.20371 (2024)","DOI":"10.52202\/079017-3968"},{"key":"2238_CR19","first-page":"4015","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF international conference on computer vision","author":"A Kirillov","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kirillov, A., Mintun, E., Ravi, N., et al.: Segment anything. In: Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF international conference on computer vision, pp. 4015\u20134026. IEEE, Geneva (2023)"},{"key":"2238_CR20","first-page":"10965","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF conference on computer vision and pattern recognition","author":"LH Li","year":"2022","unstructured":"Li, L.H., Zhang, P., Zhang, H., et al.: Grounded language-image pre-training. In: Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 10965\u201310975. IEEE, Geneva (2022)"},{"key":"2238_CR21","first-page":"38","volume-title":"European conference on computer Vision","author":"S Liu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Liu, S., Zeng, Z., Ren, T., et al.: Grounding Dino: marrying Dino with grounded pre-training for open-set object detection. In: European conference on computer Vision, pp. 38\u201355. Springer, Cham (2024)"},{"key":"2238_CR22","volume-title":"IEEE transactions on circuits and systems for video technology","author":"Y Liu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Dai, D., Wang, G., et al.: Multivariate feedback-based image-text joint learning for sketch-less facial image retrieval. In: IEEE transactions on circuits and systems for video technology. IEEE, Geneva (2025)"},{"key":"2238_CR23","first-page":"10012","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF international conference on computer vision","author":"Z Liu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Liu, Z., Lin, Y., Cao, Y., et al.: Swin transformer: hierarchical vision transformer using shifted windows. In: Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF international conference on computer vision, pp. 10012\u201310022. IEEE, Geneva (2021)"},{"key":"2238_CR24","volume-title":"IEEE transactions on neural networks and learning systems","author":"Y Long","year":"2023","unstructured":"Long, Y., Han, J., Huang, R., et al.: Fine-grained visual-text prompt-driven self-training for open-vocabulary object detection. In: IEEE transactions on neural networks and learning systems. IEEE, Geneva (2023)"},{"key":"2238_CR25","volume-title":"IEEE transactions on multimedia","author":"Y Ma","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ma, Y., Liu, M., Zhu, C., et al.: HA-FGOVD Highlighting fine-grained attributes via explicit linear composition for open-vocabulary object detection. In: IEEE transactions on multimedia. IEEE, Geneva (2025)"},{"key":"2238_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.media.2023.102918","volume":"89","author":"MA Mazurowski","year":"2023","unstructured":"Mazurowski, M.A., Dong, H., Gu, H., et al.: Segment anything model for medical image analysis: an experimental study. Med. Image Anal. 89, 102918 (2023). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.media.2023.102918","journal-title":"Med. Image Anal."},{"key":"2238_CR27","first-page":"728","volume-title":"European conference on computer vision","author":"M Minderer","year":"2022","unstructured":"Minderer, M., Gritsenko, A., Stone, A., et al.: Simple open-vocabulary object detection. In: European conference on computer vision, pp. 728\u2013755. Springer, Cham (2022)"},{"key":"2238_CR28","unstructured":"Peng, D., Cao, J., Zhang, Q., et\u00a0al.: Lovon: Legged open-vocabulary object navigator. arXiv preprint arXiv:2507.06747 (2025)"},{"key":"2238_CR29","unstructured":"Radford, A., Kim, J.W., Hallacy, C., et\u00a0al.: Learning transferable visual models from natural language supervision. In: International conference on machine learning, PmLR, pp 8748\u20138763 (2021)"},{"key":"2238_CR30","first-page":"53728","volume":"36","author":"R Rafailov","year":"2023","unstructured":"Rafailov, R., Sharma, A., Mitchell, E., et al.: Direct preference optimization: your language model is secretly a reward model. Adv. Neural. Inf. Process. Syst. 36, 53728\u201353741 (2023)","journal-title":"Adv. Neural. Inf. Process. Syst."},{"key":"2238_CR31","first-page":"779","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition","author":"J Redmon","year":"2016","unstructured":"Redmon, J., Divvala, S., Girshick, R., et al.: You only look once: unified, real-time object detection. In: Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 779\u2013788. IEEE, Geneva (2016)"},{"key":"2238_CR32","unstructured":"Ren, T., Liu, S., Zeng, A., et\u00a0al.: Grounded sam: Assembling open-world models for diverse visual tasks. arXiv preprint arXiv:2401.14159 (2024)"},{"key":"2238_CR33","unstructured":"Schulman, J., Levine, S., Abbeel, P., et\u00a0al.: Trust region policy optimization. In: International conference on machine learning, PMLR, pp 1889\u20131897 (2015)"},{"key":"2238_CR34","unstructured":"Schulman, J., Wolski, F., Dhariwal, P., et\u00a0al.: Proximal policy optimization algorithms. arXiv preprint arXiv:1707.06347 (2017)"},{"key":"2238_CR35","unstructured":"Shao, Z., Wang, P., Zhu, Q., et\u00a0al.: Deepseekmath: Pushing the limits of mathematical reasoning in open language models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2402.03300 (2024)"},{"key":"2238_CR36","unstructured":"She, J., Li, Z., Huang, Z., et\u00a0al.: Hawkeye: Efficient reasoning with model collaboration. arXiv preprint arXiv:2504.00424 (2025)"},{"key":"2238_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1145\/1101149.1101236","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 13th annual ACM international conference on multimedia","author":"CG Snoek","year":"2005","unstructured":"Snoek, C.G., Worring, M., Smeulders, A.W.: Early versus late fusion in semantic video analysis. In: Proceedings of the 13th annual ACM international conference on multimedia, pp. 399\u2013402. ACM International, New York (2005)"},{"key":"2238_CR38","first-page":"45636","volume":"37","author":"D Wang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Wang, D., Sapkota, H., Yu, Q.: Adaptive important region selection with reinforced hierarchical search for dense object detection. Adv. Neural. Inf. Process. Syst. 37, 45636\u201345665 (2024)","journal-title":"Adv. Neural. Inf. Process. Syst."},{"key":"2238_CR39","first-page":"19381","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF conference on computer vision and pattern recognition","author":"S Wang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wang, S., Chang, J., Li, H., et al.: Open-set fine-grained retrieval via prompting vision-language evaluator. In: Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 19381\u201319391. IEEE, Geneva (2023)"},{"key":"2238_CR40","first-page":"3080","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF international conference on computer vision","author":"S Wang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Wang, S., Shi, J., Li, H.: Adversarial reconstruction feedback for robust fine-grained generalization. In: Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF international conference on computer vision, pp. 3080\u20133090. IEEE, Geneva (2025)"},{"issue":"2","key":"2238_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/S0893-6080(05)80023-1","volume":"5","author":"DH Wolpert","year":"1992","unstructured":"Wolpert, D.H.: Stacked generalization. Neural Netw. 5(2), 241\u2013259 (1992)","journal-title":"Neural Netw."},{"key":"2238_CR42","volume-title":"IEEE Transactions on Image Processing","author":"Y Xu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Xu, Y., Zhang, M., Yang, X., et al.: Exploring multi-modal contextual knowledge for open-vocabulary object detection. In: IEEE Transactions on Image Processing. IEEE, Geneva (2024)"},{"key":"2238_CR43","first-page":"14393","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF conference on computer vision and pattern recognition","author":"A Zareian","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zareian, A., Rosa, K.D., Hu, D.H., et al.: Open-vocabulary object detection using captions. In: Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 14393\u201314402. IEEE, Geneva (2021)"},{"key":"2238_CR44","unstructured":"Zhang, C., Han, D., Qiao, Y., et\u00a0al.: Faster segment anything: Towards lightweight sam for mobile applications. arXiv preprint arXiv:2306.14289 (2023)"},{"key":"2238_CR45","first-page":"36067","volume":"35","author":"H Zhang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zhang, H., Zhang, P., Hu, X., et al.: Glipv2: Unifying localization and vision-language understanding. Adv. Neural. Inf. Process. Syst. 35, 36067\u201336080 (2022)","journal-title":"Adv. Neural. Inf. Process. Syst."},{"key":"2238_CR46","unstructured":"Zhao, X., Chen, Y., Xu, S., et\u00a0al.: An open and comprehensive pipeline for unified object grounding and detection. arXiv preprint arXiv:2401.02361 (2024)"},{"key":"2238_CR47","first-page":"16793","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF conference on computer vision and pattern recognition","author":"Y Zhong","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zhong, Y., Yang, J., Zhang, P., et al.: Regionclip: Region-based language-image pretraining. In: Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 16793\u201316803. IEEE, Geneva (2022)"},{"key":"2238_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2021.02.073","volume":"443","author":"M Zhou","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zhou, M., Wang, R., Xie, C., et al.: Reinforcenet: a reinforcement learning embedded object detection framework with region selection network. Neurocomputing 443, 369\u2013379 (2021)","journal-title":"Neurocomputing"}],"container-title":["Multimedia Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00530-026-02238-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00530-026-02238-5","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00530-026-02238-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,6]],"date-time":"2026-05-06T05:23:10Z","timestamp":1778044990000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00530-026-02238-5"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,6]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["2238"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00530-026-02238-5","relation":{},"ISSN":["0942-4962","1432-1882"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0942-4962","type":"print"},{"value":"1432-1882","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"10 December 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 January 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"6 May 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no conflict of interest.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}],"article-number":"249"}}