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However, VR may induce symptoms of simulator sickness (SS) such as difficulty focusing, difficulty concentrating, or dizziness that could impair autonomic nervous system function, affect mental workload, and worsen interventional outcomes. In the original randomized controlled trial, which explored the effectiveness of using a 360\u00b0 VR video versus a two-dimensional VR video to learn history taking and physical examination skills, only the former group participants had SS. Therefore, 28 undergraduate medical students who participated in a 360\u00b0 VR learning module were included in this post hoc study using a repeated measures design. Data of the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ), heart rate variability (HRV) analysis, Task Load Index, and Mini-Clinical Evaluation Exercise were retrospectively reviewed and statistically analyzed. Ten (36%) participants had mild SS (total score\u2009&gt;\u20090 and\u2009\u2264\u200920), and 18 (64%) had no SS symptom. Total SSQ score was positively related to the very low frequency (VLF) band power, physical demand subscale, and frustration subscale, and inversely related to physical examination score. Using multilevel modeling, the VLF power mediated the relationship between total SSQ score and physical examination score. Furthermore, frustration subscale moderated the mediating effects of the VLF power. Our results highlight the importance of documenting SS to evaluate a 360\u00b0 VR training program. Furthermore, the combination of HRV analysis with mental workload measurement and outcome assessments provided the important clinical value in evaluating the effects of SS in VR applications in medical education.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-022-00688-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,14]],"date-time":"2022-09-14T03:29:16Z","timestamp":1663126156000},"page":"3345-3361","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Mild simulator sickness can alter heart rate variability, mental workload, and learning outcomes in a 360\u00b0 virtual reality application for medical education: a post hoc analysis of a randomized controlled trial"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9201-0270","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Li-Jen","family":"Hsin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1681-5410","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yi-Ping","family":"Chao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7394-4016","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hai-Hua","family":"Chuang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7107-3632","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Terry B. 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