{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T11:25:43Z","timestamp":1778844343833,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,11]],"date-time":"2024-04-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1712793600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,11]],"date-time":"2024-04-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1712793600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000155","name":"Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000155","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000196","name":"the Canada Foundation for Innovation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000196","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Ontario Ministry for Research and Innovation"},{"name":"the Canada Research Chair Program"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Virtual Reality"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Mixed reality technologies, such as virtual (VR) and augmented (AR) reality, present promising opportunities to advance education and professional training due to their adaptability to diverse contexts. Distortions in the perceived distance in such mediated conditions, however, are well documented and have imposed nontrivial challenges that complicate and limit transferring task performance in a virtual setting to the unmediated reality (UR). One potential source of the distance distortion is the vergence-accommodation conflict\u2014the discrepancy between the depth specified by the eyes\u2019 accommodative state and the angle at which the eyes converge to fixate on a target. The present study involved the use of a manual pointing task in UR, VR, and AR to quantify the magnitude of the potential depth distortion in each modality. Conceptualizing the effect of vergence-accommodation offset as a constant offset to the vergence angle, a model was developed based on the stereoscopic viewing geometry. Different versions of the model were used to fit and predict the behavioral data for all modalities. Results confirmed the validity of the conceptualization of vergence-accommodation as a device-specific vergence offset, which predicted up to 66% of the variance in the data. The fitted parameters indicate that, due to the vergence-accommodation conflict, participants\u2019 vergence angle was driven outwards by approximately 0.2\u00b0, which disrupted the stereoscopic viewing geometry and produced distance distortion in VR and AR. The implications of this finding are discussed in the context of developing virtual environments that minimize the effect of depth distortion.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-024-00991-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,11]],"date-time":"2024-04-11T04:01:37Z","timestamp":1712808097000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["The geometry of the vergence-accommodation conflict in mixed reality systems"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"28","author":[{"given":"Xiaoye Michael","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Southwick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Ian","family":"Robinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Nitsche","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Gabby","family":"Resch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Ali","family":"Mazalek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Timothy N.","family":"Welsh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"991_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-010-2361-9","volume":"205","author":"J Anderson","year":"2010","unstructured":"Anderson J, Bingham GP (2010) A solution to the online guidance problem for targeted reaches: proportional rate control using relative disparity \u03c4. Exp Brain Res 205:291\u2013306","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"key":"991_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barkokebas R, Ritter C, Sirbu V, Li X, Al-Hussein M (2019) Application of virtual reality in task training in the construction manufacturing industry. In: ISARC. Proceedings of the international symposium on automation and robotics in construction, 36, 796\u2013803","DOI":"10.22260\/ISARC2019\/0107"},{"key":"991_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barrera Machuca MD, Stuerzlinger W (2019) The effect of stereo display deficiencies on virtual hand pointing. In: Proceedings of the 2019 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems, pp 1\u201314","DOI":"10.1145\/3290605.3300437"},{"key":"991_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Batmaz AU, Machuca MDB, Pham DM, Stuerzlinger W (2019) Do head-mounted display stereo deficiencies affect 3D pointing tasks in AR and VR? In: 2019 IEEE conference on virtual reality and 3D user interfaces (VR), pp 585\u2013592","DOI":"10.1109\/VR.2019.8797975"},{"key":"991_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Batmaz AU, Barrera Machuca MD, Sun J, Stuerzlinger W (2022) The effect of the vergence-accommodation conflict on virtual hand pointing in immersive displays. In: CHI conference on human factors in computing systems, pp 1\u201315","DOI":"10.1145\/3491102.3502067"},{"key":"991_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Batmaz AU, Mughribi MH, Sarac M, Machuca MB, Stuerzlinger W (2023) Measuring the effect of stereo deficiencies on peripersonal space pointing. In: 2023 IEEE conference virtual reality and 3D user interfaces (VR), 1\u201311","DOI":"10.1109\/VR55154.2023.00063"},{"key":"991_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Batmaz AU, Turkmen R, Sarac M, Barrera Machuca MD, Stuerzlinger W (2023) Re-investigating the effect of the vergence-accommodation conflict on 3d pointing. In: Proceedings of the 29th ACM symposium on virtual reality software and technology, 1\u201310","DOI":"10.1145\/3611659.3615686"},{"issue":"4","key":"991_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"204166952093840","DOI":"10.1177\/2041669520938400","volume":"11","author":"AO Bebko","year":"2020","unstructured":"Bebko AO, Troje NF (2020) bmlTUX: Design and control of experiments in virtual reality and beyond. I-Perception 11(4):2041669520938400","journal-title":"I-Perception"},{"issue":"1","key":"991_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.24.1.145","volume":"24","author":"GP Bingham","year":"1998","unstructured":"Bingham GP, Pagano CC (1998) The necessity of a perception\u2013action approach to definite distance perception: Monocular distance perception to guide reaching. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 24(1):145","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform"},{"issue":"6","key":"991_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1314","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.27.6.1314","volume":"27","author":"GP Bingham","year":"2001","unstructured":"Bingham GP, Bradley A, Bailey M, Vinner R (2001) Accommodation, occlusion, and disparity matching are used to guide reaching: a comparison of actual versus virtual environments. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 27(6):1314","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform"},{"key":"991_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108029","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2022.108029","volume":"196","author":"GP Bingham","year":"2022","unstructured":"Bingham GP, Herth RA, Yang P, Chen Z, Wang XM (2022) Investigation of optical texture properties as relative distance information for monocular guidance of reaching. Vision Res 196:108029","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"991_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2022.108152","volume":"203","author":"GP Bingham","year":"2023","unstructured":"Bingham GP, Wang XM, Herth RA (2023) Stable visually guided reaching does not require an internal feedforward model to compensate for internal delay: data and model. Vision Res 203:108152. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.visres.2022.108152","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"issue":"3","key":"991_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3196885","volume":"15","author":"LE Buck","year":"2018","unstructured":"Buck LE, Young MK, Bodenheimer B (2018) A comparison of distance estimation in HMD-based virtual environments with different HMD-based conditions. ACM Trans Appl Percep (TAP) 15(3):1\u201315","journal-title":"ACM Trans Appl Percep (TAP)"},{"key":"991_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang JS-K, Yeboah G, Doucette A, Clifton P, Nitsche M, Welsh T, Mazalek A (2017) Evaluating the effect of tangible virtual reality on spatial perspective taking ability. In: Proceedings of the 5th symposium on spatial user interaction, pp 68\u201377","DOI":"10.1145\/3131277.3132171"},{"key":"991_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang JS-K, Doucette AF, Yeboah G, Welsh T, Nitsche M, Mazalek A (2018) A tangible VR game designed for spatial penetrative thinking ability. Extended Abstracts of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp 1\u20134","DOI":"10.1145\/3170427.3186530"},{"issue":"1","key":"991_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1037\/a0033802","volume":"40","author":"RO Coats","year":"2014","unstructured":"Coats RO, Pan JS, Bingham GP (2014) Perturbation of perceptual units reveals dominance hierarchy in cross calibration. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 40(1):328","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform"},{"issue":"1","key":"991_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.24.1.203","volume":"24","author":"BG Cumming","year":"2001","unstructured":"Cumming BG, DeAngelis GC (2001) The physiology of stereopsis. Annu Rev Neurosci 24(1):203\u2013238","journal-title":"Annu Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"991_CR18","first-page":"36","volume":"5291","author":"NA Dodgson","year":"2004","unstructured":"Dodgson NA (2004) Variation and extrema of human interpupillary distance. Stereosc Disp Virtual Reality Syst XI 5291:36\u201346","journal-title":"Stereosc Disp Virtual Reality Syst XI"},{"issue":"3","key":"991_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1475-1313.2000.00499.x","volume":"20","author":"A Eadie","year":"2000","unstructured":"Eadie A, Gray L, Carlin P, Mon-Williams M (2000) Modelling adaptation effects in vergence and accommodation after exposure to a simulated virtual reality stimulus. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 20(3):242\u2013251","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"},{"issue":"6","key":"991_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1037\/a0020958","volume":"136","author":"D Elliott","year":"2010","unstructured":"Elliott D, Hansen S, Grierson LE, Lyons J, Bennett SJ, Hayes SJ (2010) Goal-directed aiming: two components but multiple processes. Psychol Bull 136(6):1023","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"issue":"6","key":"991_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1037\/h0055392","volume":"47","author":"PM Fitts","year":"1954","unstructured":"Fitts PM (1954) The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement. J Exp Psychol 47(6):381","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol"},{"key":"991_CR22","first-page":"605","volume-title":"Basic concepts underlying graphical analysis. Vergence eye movements basic and clinical aspects","author":"G Fry","year":"1983","unstructured":"Fry G (1983) Basic concepts underlying graphical analysis. Vergence eye movements basic and clinical aspects. Butterworth, . Boston, pp 605\u2013646"},{"key":"991_CR23","volume-title":"The ecological approach to visual perception (New edition)","author":"JJ Gibson","year":"1986","unstructured":"Gibson JJ (1986) The ecological approach to visual perception (New edition). Psychology Press"},{"key":"991_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonzalez-Franco, M., Abtahi, P., & Steed, A. (2019). Individual differences in embodied distance estimation in virtual reality. In: 2019 IEEE conference on virtual reality and 3D user interfaces (VR), pp 941\u2013943","DOI":"10.1109\/VR.2019.8798348"},{"issue":"sup1","key":"991_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S169","DOI":"10.1080\/10255842.2020.1714228","volume":"22","author":"A-L Guinet","year":"2019","unstructured":"Guinet A-L, Bouyer G, Otmane S, Desailly E (2019) Reliability of the head tracking measured by microsoft hololens during different walking conditions. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin 22(sup1):S169\u2013S171","journal-title":"Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin"},{"issue":"3","key":"991_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-020-05989-3","volume":"239","author":"RA Herth","year":"2021","unstructured":"Herth RA, Wang XM, Cherry O, Bingham GP (2021) Monocular guidance of reaches-to-grasp using visible support surface texture: data and model. Exp Brain Res 239(3):765\u2013776. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00221-020-05989-3","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"key":"991_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hibbard PB, van Dam LC, Scarfe P (2020) The implications of interpupillary distance variability for virtual reality. In: 2020 International conference on 3D immersion (IC3D), pp 1\u20137","DOI":"10.1109\/IC3D51119.2020.9376369"},{"issue":"3","key":"991_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1167\/8.3.33","volume":"8","author":"DM Hoffman","year":"2008","unstructured":"Hoffman DM, Girshick AR, Akeley K, Banks MS (2008) Vergence\u2013accommodation conflicts hinder visual performance and cause visual fatigue. J vis 8(3):33\u201333","journal-title":"J vis"},{"key":"991_CR29","volume-title":"Binocular vision and stereopsis","author":"IP Howard","year":"1995","unstructured":"Howard IP, Rogers BJ et al (1995) Binocular vision and stereopsis. Oxford University Press, USA"},{"issue":"3","key":"991_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-1313.1992.tb00404.x","volume":"12","author":"GK Hung","year":"1992","unstructured":"Hung GK (1992) Adaptation model of accommodation and vergence. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 12(3):319\u2013326","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"},{"key":"991_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.1980.326752","volume":"8","author":"GK Hung","year":"1980","unstructured":"Hung GK, Semmlow JL (1980) Static behavior of accommodation and vergence: computer simulation of an interactive dual-feedback system. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 8:439\u2013447","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Biomed Eng"},{"issue":"1","key":"991_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1475-1313.1996.95001107.x","volume":"16","author":"GK Hung","year":"1996","unstructured":"Hung GK, Ciuffreda KJ, Rosenfield M (1996) Proximal contribution to a linear static model of accommodation and vergence. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 16(1):31\u201341","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"},{"key":"991_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1117\/12.274474","volume":"3012","author":"K-M J\u00e4\u00e4-Aro","year":"1997","unstructured":"J\u00e4\u00e4-Aro K-M, Kjelldahl L (1997) Effects of image resolution on depth perception in stereo and nonstereo images. Stereoscopic Displays Virtual Reality Syst IV 3012:319\u2013326","journal-title":"Stereoscopic Displays Virtual Reality Syst IV"},{"key":"991_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeelani, I., Han, K., & Albert, A. (2017). Development of immersive personalized training environment for construction workers. In Computing in civil engineering 2017 pp 407\u2013415","DOI":"10.1061\/9780784480830.050"},{"issue":"1","key":"991_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1002\/mp.15349","volume":"49","author":"PB Johnson","year":"2022","unstructured":"Johnson PB, Jackson A, Saki M, Feldman E, Bradley J (2022) Patient posture correction and alignment using mixed reality visualization and the HoloLens 2. Med Phys 49(1):15\u201322","journal-title":"Med Phys"},{"issue":"5","key":"991_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1986.55.5.915","volume":"55","author":"S Judge","year":"1986","unstructured":"Judge S, Cumming B (1986) Neurons in the monkey midbrain with activity related to vergence eye movement and accommodation. J Neurophysiol 55(5):915\u2013930","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"issue":"3630","key":"991_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1126\/science.145.3630.356","volume":"145","author":"B Julesz","year":"1964","unstructured":"Julesz B (1964) Binocular depth perception without familiarity cues: random-dot stereo images with controlled spatial and temporal properties clarify problems in stereopsis. Science 145(3630):356\u2013362","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"991_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kelly, J. W. (2022). Distance perception in virtual reality: a meta-analysis of the effect of head-mounted display characteristics. In: IEEE transactions on visualization and computer graphics, 1\u201313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TVCG.2022.3196606","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2022.3196606"},{"issue":"8","key":"991_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2006.05.002","volume":"30","author":"MA Khan","year":"2006","unstructured":"Khan MA, Franks IM, Elliott D, Lawrence GP, Chua R, Bernier P-M, Hansen S, Weeks DJ (2006) Inferring online and offline processing of visual feedback in target-directed movements from kinematic data. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 30(8):1106\u20131121","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"991_CR40","unstructured":"Kim J, Interrante V (2017) Dwarf or giant: the influence of interpupillary distance and eye height on size perception in virtual environments. In: Proceedings of the 27th international conference on artificial reality and telexistence and 22nd eurographics symposium on virtual environments, 153\u2013160"},{"key":"991_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kline PB, Witmer BG (1996) Distance perception in virtual environments: effects of field of view and surface texture at near distances. In: Proceedings of the human factors and ergonomics society, pp 1112\u20131116","DOI":"10.1177\/154193129604002201"},{"issue":"2\u20133","key":"991_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1007\/s10851-008-0076-3","volume":"31","author":"JJ Koenderink","year":"2008","unstructured":"Koenderink JJ, van Doorn A (2008) The structure of visual spaces. J Math Imaging and Vision 31(2\u20133):171","journal-title":"J Math Imaging and Vision"},{"issue":"6","key":"991_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3414685.3417820","volume":"39","author":"B Krajancich","year":"2020","unstructured":"Krajancich B, Kellnhofer P, Wetzstein G (2020) Optimizing depth perception in virtual and augmented reality through gaze-contingent stereo rendering. ACM Trans on Graph (TOG) 39(6):1\u201310","journal-title":"ACM Trans on Graph (TOG)"},{"issue":"7","key":"991_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1912","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2015.2473855","volume":"22","author":"G Kramida","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kramida G (2015) Resolving the vergence-accommodation conflict in head-mounted displays. IEEE Trans Visual Comput Graphics 22(7):1912\u20131931","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Visual Comput Graphics"},{"issue":"3","key":"991_CR45","first-page":"30201","volume":"53","author":"MW LambooijIJsselsteijn","year":"2009","unstructured":"LambooijIJsselsteijn MW, IFortuin M, Heynderickx I et al (2009) Visual discomfort and visual fatigue of stereoscopic displays: a review. J Imaging Sci Technol 53(3):30201\u201330211","journal-title":"J Imaging Sci Technol"},{"issue":"7","key":"991_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e68594","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0068594","volume":"8","author":"SA Linkenauger","year":"2013","unstructured":"Linkenauger SA, Leyrer M, B\u00fclthoff HH, Mohler BJ (2013) Welcome to wonderland: the influence of the size and shape of a virtual hand on the perceived size and shape of virtual objects. PLoS ONE 8(7):e68594","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"991_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu L, van Liere R, Nieuwenhuizen C, Martens J-B (2009) Comparing aimed movements in the real world and in virtual reality. In: 2009 IEEE virtual reality conference, pp 219\u2013222","DOI":"10.1109\/VR.2009.4811026"},{"issue":"6","key":"991_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1111\/jcal.12375","volume":"35","author":"G Makransky","year":"2019","unstructured":"Makransky G, Borre-Gude S, Mayer RE (2019) Motivational and cognitive benefits of training in immersive virtual reality based on multiple assessments. J Comput Assist Learn 35(6):691\u2013707","journal-title":"J Comput Assist Learn"},{"key":"991_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Masnadi S, Pfeil KP, Sera-Josef J-VT, LaViola JJ. (2021). Field of view effect on distance perception in virtual reality. In: 2021 IEEE conference on virtual reality and 3D user interfaces abstracts and workshops (VRW), pp 542\u2013543.","DOI":"10.1109\/VRW52623.2021.00153"},{"issue":"6","key":"991_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1016\/0959-4388(95)80104-9","volume":"5","author":"LE Mays","year":"1995","unstructured":"Mays LE, Gamlin PD (1995) Neuronal circuitry controlling the near response. Curr Opin Neurobiol 5(6):763\u2013768","journal-title":"Curr Opin Neurobiol"},{"issue":"12","key":"991_CR51","first-page":"1321","volume":"77","author":"P Milgram","year":"1994","unstructured":"Milgram P, Kishino F (1994) A taxonomy of mixed reality visual displays. IEICE Trans Inf Syst 77(12):1321\u20131329","journal-title":"IEICE Trans Inf Syst"},{"key":"991_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1741","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-020-05768-y","volume":"109","author":"J Miller","year":"2020","unstructured":"Miller J, Hoover M, Winer E (2020) Mitigation of the microsoft hololens\u2019 hardware limitations for a controlled product assembly process. The Int J Adv Manuf Technol 109:1741\u20131754","journal-title":"The Int J Adv Manuf Technol"},{"issue":"4","key":"991_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0232290","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0232290","volume":"15","author":"D Mine","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mine D, Ogawa N, Narumi T, Yokosawa K (2020) The relationship between the body and the environment in the virtual world: the interpupillary distance affects the body size perception. PLoS ONE 15(4):e0232290","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"3","key":"991_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1162\/pres.19.3.230","volume":"19","author":"BJ Mohler","year":"2010","unstructured":"Mohler BJ, Creem-Regehr SH, Thompson WB, B\u00fclthoff HH (2010) The effect of viewing a self-avatar on distance judgments in an HMD-based virtual environment. Presence 19(3):230\u2013242","journal-title":"Presence"},{"issue":"2","key":"991_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1068\/p2737","volume":"28","author":"M Mon-Williams","year":"1999","unstructured":"Mon-Williams M, Tresilian JR (1999) Some recent studies on the extraretinal contribution to distance perception. Perception 28(2):167\u2013181","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"991_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mor\u00e9, J. J. (1978). The Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm: Implementation and theory. In Numerical analysis (pp. 105\u2013116). Springer","DOI":"10.1007\/BFb0067700"},{"issue":"7","key":"991_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1097\/00006324-196807000-00002","volume":"45","author":"MW Morgan","year":"1968","unstructured":"Morgan MW (1968) Accommodation and vergence. Optom vis Sci 45(7):417\u2013454","journal-title":"Optom vis Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"991_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1037\/a0033795","volume":"40","author":"JS Pan","year":"2014","unstructured":"Pan JS, Coats RO, Bingham GP (2014) Calibration is action specific but perturbation of perceptual units is not. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 40(1):404","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform"},{"key":"991_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peer A, Ponto K (2019) Mitigating incorrect perception of distance in virtual reality through personalized rendering manipulation. In: 2019 IEEE conference on virtual reality and 3D user interfaces (VR), 244\u2013250","DOI":"10.1109\/VR.2019.8797911"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"991_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2006.11.017","volume":"162","author":"J Peirce","year":"2007","unstructured":"Peirce J (2007) Psychopy\u2014psychophysics software in python. J Neurosci Methods 162(1\u20132):8\u201313","journal-title":"J Neurosci Methods"},{"issue":"1","key":"991_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-018-01193-y","volume":"51","author":"J Peirce","year":"2019","unstructured":"Peirce J, Gray JR, Simpson S, MacAskill M, H\u00f6chenberger R, Sogo H, Kastman E, Lindel\u00f8v JK (2019) PsychoPy2: experiments in behavior made easy. Behav Res Methods 51(1):195\u2013203","journal-title":"Behav Res Methods"},{"issue":"1","key":"991_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ne.07.030184.002115","volume":"7","author":"GF Poggio","year":"1984","unstructured":"Poggio GF, Poggio T (1984) The analysis of stereopsis. Annu Rev Neurosci 7(1):379\u2013412","journal-title":"Annu Rev Neurosci"},{"issue":"2","key":"991_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/2543581.2543590","volume":"46","author":"RS Renner","year":"2013","unstructured":"Renner RS, Velichkovsky BM, Helmert JR (2013) The perception of egocentric distances in virtual environments\u2014a review. ACM Comput Surveys (CSUR) 46(2):1\u201340","journal-title":"ACM Comput Surveys (CSUR)"},{"issue":"2","key":"991_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/2724716","volume":"12","author":"RS Renner","year":"2015","unstructured":"Renner RS, Steindecker E, M\u00fcLler M, Velichkovsky BM, Stelzer R, Pannasch S, Helmert JR (2015) The influence of the stereo base on blind and sighted reaches in a virtual environment. ACM Trans Appl Percep (TAP) 12(2):1\u201318","journal-title":"ACM Trans Appl Percep (TAP)"},{"key":"991_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ryu J, Hashimoto N, Sato M. (2005). Influence of resolution degradation on distance estimation in virtual space displaying static and dynamic image. In: 2005 International conference on cyberworlds (CW\u201905), 8\u201350","DOI":"10.1109\/CW.2005.54"},{"key":"991_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00006324-198311000-00013","volume-title":"Vergence eye movements: basic and clinical aspects","author":"CM Schor","year":"1983","unstructured":"Schor CM, Ciuffreda KJ (1983) Vergence eye movements: basic and clinical aspects. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford"},{"issue":"2","key":"991_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1385","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2018.2869729","volume":"26","author":"G Singh","year":"2018","unstructured":"Singh G, Ellis SR, Swan JE (2018) The effect of focal distance, age, and brightness on near-field augmented reality depth matching. IEEE Trans Visual Comput Graph 26(2):1385\u20131398","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Visual Comput Graph"},{"issue":"11","key":"991_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2015.2459895","volume":"21","author":"JE Swan","year":"2015","unstructured":"Swan JE, Singh G, Ellis SR (2015) Matching and reaching depth judgments with real and augmented reality targets. IEEE Trans Visual Comput Graph 21(11):1289\u20131298","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Visual Comput Graph"},{"key":"991_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teather RJ, Pavlovych A, Stuerzlinger W, MacKenzie IS. (2009). Effects of tracking technology, latency, and spatial jitter on object movement. In: 2009 IEEE symposium on 3D user interfaces, 43\u201350","DOI":"10.1109\/3DUI.2009.4811204"},{"issue":"3","key":"991_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1038\/s41592-019-0686-2","volume":"17","author":"P Virtanen","year":"2020","unstructured":"Virtanen P, Gommers R, Oliphant TE, Haberland M, Reddy T, Cournapeau D, Burovski E, Peterson P, Weckesser W, Bright J, van der Walt SJ, Brett M, Wilson J, Millman KJ, Mayorov N, Nelson ARJ, Jones E, Kern R, Larson E, V\u00e1zquez-Baeza Y (2020) SciPy 1.0: fundamental algorithms for scientific computing in python. Nat Methods 17(3):261\u2013272. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41592-019-0686-2","journal-title":"Nat Methods"},{"key":"991_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wang XM, Welsh TN (2024) TAT-HUM: trajectory analysis toolkit for human movements in Python. Behav Res Methods. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13428-024-02378-4","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-024-02378-4"},{"key":"991_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wang XM, Nitsche M, Resch G, Mazalek A, Welsh TN (in preparation) Mixed reality alters motor planning and control. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.31234\/osf.io\/pxv5t","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/pxv5t"},{"key":"991_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wang XM, Southwick D, Robinson I, Nitsche M, Resch G, Mazalek A, & Welsh TN (under review) Prolonged exposure to mixed reality alters task performance in the unmediated environment. Scientific Reports. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.31234\/osf.io\/ag7z9","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/ag7z9"},{"key":"991_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1080\/13506285.2023.2203528","volume":"31","author":"XM Wang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wang XM, Troje NF (2023) Relating visual and pictorial space: binocular disparity for distance, motion parallax for direction. Vis Cogn 31:107\u2013125. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13506285.2023.2203528","journal-title":"Vis Cogn"},{"issue":"19","key":"991_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2731","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(95)00018-U","volume":"35","author":"JP Wann","year":"1995","unstructured":"Wann JP, Rushton S, Mon-Williams M (1995) Natural problems for stereoscopic depth perception in virtual environments. Vision Res 35(19):2731\u20132736","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"991_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-022-01983-5","volume":"55","author":"M Warburton","year":"2022","unstructured":"Warburton M, Mon-Williams M, Mushtaq F, Morehead JR (2022) Measuring motion-to-photon latency for sensorimotor experiments with virtual reality systems. Behav Res Methods 55:1\u201321","journal-title":"Behav Res Methods"},{"issue":"9","key":"991_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2005.06.018","volume":"9","author":"M Wexler","year":"2005","unstructured":"Wexler M, van Boxtel JJ (2005) Depth perception by the active observer. Trends Cogn Sci 9(9):431\u2013438","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"991_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/1498700.1498702","volume":"6","author":"P Willemsen","year":"2009","unstructured":"Willemsen P, Colton MB, Creem-Regehr SH, Thompson WB (2009) The effects of head-mounted display mechanical properties and field of view on distance judgments in virtual environments. ACM Trans on Appl Percept (TAP) 6(2):1\u201314","journal-title":"ACM Trans on Appl Percept (TAP)"},{"issue":"2","key":"991_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1162\/105474698565640","volume":"7","author":"BG Witmer","year":"1998","unstructured":"Witmer BG, Kline PB (1998) Judging perceived and traversed distance in virtual environments. Presence 7(2):144\u2013167","journal-title":"Presence"},{"issue":"3","key":"991_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1518\/001872098779591340","volume":"40","author":"BG Witmer","year":"1998","unstructured":"Witmer BG, Sadowski WJ Jr (1998) Nonvisually guided locomotion to a previously viewed target in real and virtual environments. Hum Factors 40(3):478\u2013488","journal-title":"Hum Factors"},{"issue":"3","key":"991_CR81","first-page":"i","volume":"3","author":"RS Woodworth","year":"1899","unstructured":"Woodworth RS (1899) Accuracy of voluntary movement. Psychol Rev: Monogr Suppl 3(3):i","journal-title":"Psychol Rev: Monogr Suppl"},{"issue":"1","key":"991_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1186\/s12886-021-02016-z","volume":"21","author":"P-H Yeh","year":"2021","unstructured":"Yeh P-H, Liu C-H, Sun M-H, Chi S-C, Hwang Y-S (2021) To measure the amount of ocular deviation in strabismus patients with an eye-tracking virtual reality headset. BMC Ophthalmol 21(1):246. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12886-021-02016-z","journal-title":"BMC Ophthalmol"}],"container-title":["Virtual Reality"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10055-024-00991-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10055-024-00991-4\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10055-024-00991-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,4]],"date-time":"2024-09-04T03:44:07Z","timestamp":1725421447000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s10055-024-00991-4"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,11]]},"references-count":82,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["991"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10055-024-00991-4","relation":{},"ISSN":["1434-9957"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1434-9957","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,11]]},"assertion":[{"value":"24 August 2023","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 March 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"11 April 2024","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}],"article-number":"95"}}