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The role of virtual reality (VR) in improving engagement and effectiveness within this context remains uncertain. To explore the potential acceptability and effectiveness of VR-based mindfulness interventions for mental health outcomes in non-clinical adults, we conducted a pilot randomised controlled trial (RCT) with pre-treatment and post-treatment measures, alongside pre-post VR session assessments. A total of 51 participants were randomly assigned to three groups: \u201cMBP\u201d alone (\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u200915), \u201cMBP\u2009+\u2009VR\u201d (\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u200920) and \u201cRelaxation\u201d therapy (\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u200916), the latter serving as the control condition. We utilised the innovative technology of the MK360 immersive experiences system, offering auditory and visual stimuli that allowed participants to immerse themselves in a virtual world. \u201cMBP\u2009+\u2009VR\u201d demonstrated greater acceptability compared to \u201cRelaxation\u201d but equal acceptability to \u201cMBP\u201d alone. All study conditions showed significant reductions in psychological distress, the primary outcome. Notably, \u201cMBP\u2009+\u2009VR\u201d outperformed \u201cRelaxation\u201d in reducing psychological distress (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u2009.0.015), with large effects. Both MBP and MBP\u2009+\u2009VR showed superior results compared to the Relaxation group. MBP demonstrated greater improvements in depressive symptoms (DASS-21), positive affect (PANAS), the Observing facet of mindfulness (FFMQ), and several self-compassion measures (total SCS, Self-Kindness, lower Self-Judgment, and Mindfulness subscale). MBP\u2009+\u2009VR was superior in the total FFMQ score, the Observing facet, and the SCS Mindfulness subscale. Participants in the \u201cMBP\u2009+\u2009VR\u201d group experienced significant improvements in state mindfulness (across six short sessions in mindfulness-based VR environments) and emotional states (relaxation in all VR environments, reduced sadness in VR-environment 3, increased surprise in VR-environment 5, and decreased anxiety in VR-environment 6). They reported an intermediate sense of presence in each of the VR environments. Despite these promising results, further research in this area is warranted.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-025-01218-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]],"date-time":"2025-09-05T10:34:46Z","timestamp":1757068486000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["The potential of virtual reality for enhancing the efficacy and acceptability of mindfulness training in non-clinical adults: a pilot randomised controlled trial"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"29","author":[{"given":"Marta","family":"Modrego-Alarc\u00f3n","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Yolanda","family":"L\u00f3pez-Del-Hoyo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda","family":"Beltr\u00e1n-Ruiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Javier","family":"Garc\u00eda-Campayo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Jesus","family":"Montero-Marin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"1218_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12671-021-01783-6","volume":"13","author":"P Arpaia","year":"2021","unstructured":"Arpaia P, D\u2019Errico G, De Paolis LT, Moccaldi N, Nuccetelli F (2022) A narrative review of mindfulness-based interventions using virtual reality. 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