{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T15:02:13Z","timestamp":1773932533189,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]],"date-time":"2026-03-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773619200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773878400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":3,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Johannes Gutenberg-Universit\u00e4t Mainz"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Virtual Reality"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Virtual reality (VR) has become more affordable and is increasingly used for therapeutic and educational purposes where it is important to transfer learned experiences to the real world. But is it worth switching from conventional 2D displays to VR to strengthen such learning effects? Here, we investigated how well incidentally learned emotional and neutral scenes, encoded either in VR or as a conventional 2D presentation (encoding context VR, 2D), could be recognized in congruent or incongruent presentation contexts (retrieval context VR, 2D). Using a 3\u2009\u00d7\u20092\u2009\u00d7\u20092 mixed design, 60 participants viewed (and incidentally encoded) emotional and neutral scenes in VR and as 2D video. After 24\u00a0h, 30 participants performed an unannounced old-new judgment task in 2D, while the others completed it in VR. 2D-encoded scenes were recognized better in the congruent 2D than in the incongruent VR context. Context congruency effects were less pronounced for VR-encoding. On average, participants reliably recognized VR-encoded scenes in the incongruent 2D retrieval context. Participants retrieved emotional scenes better and more confidently than neutral ones, independent of encoding context. However, scenes experienced in VR were more likely to be perceived as emotional than when the same scenes were viewed as 2D video. Taken together, the presentation mode of a scene (2D, VR) served as a contextual mnemonic aid, mainly for 2D-encoded scenes. Overall, VR-encoded scenes were less dependent on context congruency effects, suggesting a reduced sensitivity to the retrieval context rather than a direct transfer advantage. Finally, VR-encoding increased the likelihood that the content would be perceived as emotional, suggesting its potential as a useful educational and therapeutic tool.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-026-01330-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]],"date-time":"2026-03-16T19:46:06Z","timestamp":1773690366000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Emotional enhancement and asymmetric context congruency effects for incidental memories of 2D and VR scenes"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"30","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8720-7837","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marlene","family":"Wessels","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3974-1063","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christian","family":"Valuch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9471-3842","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anne","family":"Schacht","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9696-8619","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lousia","family":"Kulke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"1330_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2013.08.014","volume":"129","author":"JS Adelman","year":"2013","unstructured":"Adelman JS, Estes Z (2013) Emotion and memory: a recognition advantage for positive and negative words independent of arousal. Cognition 129(3):530\u2013535. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cognition.2013.08.014","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"1330_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.25304\/rlt.v26.2140","author":"D Allcoat","year":"2018","unstructured":"Allcoat D, von M\u00fchlenen A (2018) Learning in virtual reality: effects on performance emotion and engagement. Res Learn Technol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.25304\/rlt.v26.2140","journal-title":"Res Learn Technol"},{"issue":"1","key":"1330_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01","volume":"67","author":"D Bates","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bates D, M\u00e4chler M, Bolker B, Walker S (2015) Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. J Stat Softw 67(1):1\u201348. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18637\/jss.v067.i01","journal-title":"J Stat Softw"},{"key":"1330_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bonnail, E., Frommel, J., Lecolinet, E., Huron, S., & Gugenheimer, J. (2024). Was it real or virtual? Confirming the occurrence and explaining causes of memory source confusion between reality and virtual reality. Proceedings of the CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1\u201317. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3613904.3641992","DOI":"10.1145\/3613904.3641992"},{"issue":"1","key":"1330_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7916(94)90063-9","volume":"25","author":"MM Bradley","year":"1994","unstructured":"Bradley MM, Lang PJ (1994) Measuring emotion: the self-assessment manikin and the semantic differential. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 25(1):49\u201359. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0005-7916(94)90063-9","journal-title":"J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry"},{"key":"1330_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2020.102506","volume":"144","author":"LB Cadet","year":"2020","unstructured":"Cadet LB, Chainay H (2020) Memory of virtual experiences: role of immersion, emotion and sense of presence. Int J Hum Comput Stud 144:102506. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2020.102506","journal-title":"Int J Hum Comput Stud"},{"key":"1330_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-021-00537-y","author":"LB Cadet","year":"2021","unstructured":"Cadet LB, Reynaud E, Chainay H (2021) Memory for a virtual reality experience in children and adults according to image quality, emotion, and sense of presence. Virtual Reality. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10055-021-00537-y","journal-title":"Virtual Reality"},{"key":"1330_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.janxdis.2018.08.003","volume":"61","author":"E Carl","year":"2019","unstructured":"Carl E, Stein AT, Levihn-Coon A, Pogue JR, Rothbaum B, Emmelkamp P, Asmundson GJG, Carlbring P, Powers MB (2019) Virtual reality exposure therapy for anxiety and related disorders: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Anxiety Disord 61:27\u201336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.janxdis.2018.08.003","journal-title":"J Anxiety Disord"},{"issue":"3","key":"1330_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.2478\/v10053-008-0121-1","volume":"8","author":"H Chainay","year":"2012","unstructured":"Chainay H, Michael GA, Vert-pr\u00e9 M, Landr\u00e9 L, Plasson A (2012) Emotional enhancement of immediate memory: positive pictorial stimuli are better recognized than neutral or negative pictorial stimuli. Adv Cogn Psychol 8(3):255\u2013266. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2478\/v10053-008-0121-1","journal-title":"Adv Cogn Psychol"},{"issue":"3","key":"1330_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1089\/cyber.2018.0393","volume":"22","author":"A Chirico","year":"2019","unstructured":"Chirico A, Gaggioli A (2019) When virtual feels real: comparing emotional responses and presence in virtual and natural environments. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 22(3):220\u2013226. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1089\/cyber.2018.0393","journal-title":"Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw"},{"key":"1330_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2024.1489039","author":"Y Choi","year":"2025","unstructured":"Choi Y, Kim K, Moon S, Jung G, Cha J-H, Yim H (2025) Context-dependent memory in the real world: the role of frequency and context dwell time. Front Psychol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2024.1489039","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"1330_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frvir.2024.1402093","author":"CJ Clay","year":"2024","unstructured":"Clay CJ, Budde JR, Hoang AQ, Gushchyan A (2024) An evaluation of the effectiveness of immersive virtual reality training in non-specialized medical procedures for caregivers and students: a brief literature review. Front Virtual Real. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frvir.2024.1402093","journal-title":"Front Virtual Real"},{"issue":"1413","key":"1330_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2001.0940","volume":"356","author":"MA Conway","year":"2001","unstructured":"Conway MA (2001) Sensory\u2013perceptual episodic memory and its context: autobiographical memory. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 356(1413):1413. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rstb.2001.0940","journal-title":"Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"1330_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2005.08.005","volume":"53","author":"MA Conway","year":"2005","unstructured":"Conway MA (2005) Memory and the self. J Mem Lang 53(4):594\u2013628. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jml.2005.08.005","journal-title":"J Mem Lang"},{"key":"1330_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.00026","author":"J Diemer","year":"2015","unstructured":"Diemer J, Alpers GW, Peperkorn HM, Shiban Y, M\u00fchlberger A (2015) The impact of perception and presence on emotional reactions: a review of research in virtual reality. Front Psychol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.00026","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"issue":"6","key":"1330_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/15622975.2014.892632","volume":"15","author":"J Diemer","year":"2014","unstructured":"Diemer J, M\u00fchlberger A, Pauli P, Zwanzger P (2014) Virtual reality exposure in anxiety disorders: impact on psychophysiological reactivity. World J Biol Psychiatry 15(6):6. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3109\/15622975.2014.892632","journal-title":"World J Biol Psychiatry"},{"issue":"3","key":"1330_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.3758\/CABN.2.3.252","volume":"2","author":"F Dolcos","year":"2002","unstructured":"Dolcos F, Cabeza R (2002) Event-related potentials of emotional memory: encoding pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral pictures. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci 2(3):252\u2013263. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/CABN.2.3.252","journal-title":"Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci"},{"issue":"2","key":"1330_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1053-8119(02)00015-0","volume":"18","author":"S Erk","year":"2003","unstructured":"Erk S, Kiefer M, Grothe J, Wunderlich AP, Spitzer M, Walter H (2003) Emotional context modulates subsequent memory effect. Neuroimage 18(2):2. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S1053-8119(02)00015-0","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"1330_CR19","first-page":"541","volume-title":"Design, User Experience, and Usability","author":"S Estupi\u00f1\u00e1n","year":"2014","unstructured":"Estupi\u00f1\u00e1n S, Rebelo F, Noriega P, Ferreira C, Duarte E (2014) Can Virtual Reality Increase Emotional Responses (Arousal and Valence)? A Pilot Study. In: Marcus A (ed) Design, User Experience, and Usability. User Experience Design for Diverse Interaction Platforms and Environments. Springer International Publishing, Berlin Heidelberg, pp 541\u2013549"},{"key":"1330_CR20","unstructured":"Fox, J., & Weisberg, S. (2019). An R companion to applied regression (Third). Sage. https:\/\/socialsciences.mcmaster.ca\/jfox\/Books\/Companion\/"},{"key":"1330_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2024.104249","volume":"246","author":"C Gao","year":"2024","unstructured":"Gao C, Ren J, Sakaki M, Jia X (2024) Memory enhancement for emotional words is attributed to both valence and arousal. Acta Psychol 246:104249. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.actpsy.2024.104249","journal-title":"Acta Psychol"},{"issue":"3","key":"1330_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8295.1975.tb01468.x","volume":"66","author":"D Godden","year":"1975","unstructured":"Godden D, Baddeley A (1975) Context-dependent memory in two natural environments: on land and underwater. Br J Psychol 66(3):3. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.2044-8295.1975.tb01468.x","journal-title":"Br J Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"1330_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8295.1980.tb02735.x","volume":"71","author":"D Godden","year":"1980","unstructured":"Godden D, Baddeley A (1980) When does context influence recognition memory? Br J Psychol 71(1):99\u2013104","journal-title":"Br J Psychol"},{"issue":"12","key":"1330_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0048469","volume":"7","author":"R Gon\u00e7alves","year":"2012","unstructured":"Gon\u00e7alves R, Pedrozo AL, Coutinho ESF, Figueira I, Ventura P (2012) Efficacy of virtual reality exposure therapy in the treatment of PTSD: a systematic review. PLoS ONE 7(12):e48469. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0048469","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"1330_CR25","volume-title":"Signal detection theory and psychophysics","author":"DM Green","year":"1966","unstructured":"Green DM, Swets JA (1966) Signal detection theory and psychophysics. Wiley, New York"},{"key":"1330_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gupta, K., Aeron, S., Zhao, J., Abouelenin, J., Pai, Y. S., & Billinghurst, M. (2025). Exploring emotional memory encoding and recall in virtual reality. Proceedings of the extended abstracts of the chi conference on human factors in computing systems, 1\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3706599.3719896","DOI":"10.1145\/3706599.3719896"},{"key":"1330_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gupta, K., Chan, S. W. T., Pai, Y. S., Strachan, N., Su, J., Sumich, A., Nanayakkara, S., & Billinghurst, M. (2022). Total VREcall: using biosignals to recognize emotional autobiographical memory in virtual reality. Proc. ACM Interact. Mob. Wearable Ubiquitous Technol., 6(2), 55:1\u201355:21. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3534615","DOI":"10.1145\/3534615"},{"issue":"9","key":"1330_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6613(00)01707-1","volume":"5","author":"S Hamann","year":"2001","unstructured":"Hamann S (2001) Cognitive and neural mechanisms of emotional memory. Trends Cogn Sci 5(9):394\u2013400. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S1364-6613(00)01707-1","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"1330_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1037\/1528-3542.5.2.191","volume":"5","author":"CR Harris","year":"2005","unstructured":"Harris CR, Pashler H (2005) Enhanced memory for negatively emotionally charged pictures without selective rumination. Emotion 5(2):191\u2013199. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/1528-3542.5.2.191","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"1330_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2016.03.007","volume":"81","author":"AG Harvey","year":"2016","unstructured":"Harvey AG, Lee J, Smith RL, Gumport NB, Hollon SD, Rabe-Hesketh S, Hein K, Dolsen MR, Hamen K, Kanady JC, Thompson MA, Abrons D (2016) Improving outcome for mental disorders by enhancing memory for treatment. Behav Res Ther 81:35\u201346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.brat.2016.03.007","journal-title":"Behav Res Ther"},{"issue":"1","key":"1330_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03203619","volume":"27","author":"MJ Hautus","year":"1995","unstructured":"Hautus MJ (1995) Corrections for extreme proportions and their biasing effects on estimated values ofd\u2032. Behav Res Methods Instrum Comput 27(1):46\u201351. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/BF03203619","journal-title":"Behav Res Methods Instrum Comput"},{"issue":"3","key":"1330_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/bimj.200810425","volume":"50","author":"T Hothorn","year":"2008","unstructured":"Hothorn T, Bretz F, Westfall P (2008) Simultaneous inference in general parametric models. Biom J 50(3):3. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/bimj.200810425","journal-title":"Biom J"},{"key":"1330_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1051938","author":"M Johnsdorf","year":"2023","unstructured":"Johnsdorf M, Kisker J, Gruber T, Sch\u00f6ne B (2023a) Comparing encoding mechanisms in realistic virtual reality and conventional 2D laboratory settings: Event-related potentials in a repetition suppression paradigm. Front Psychol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1051938","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"1330_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1089725","author":"M Johnsdorf","year":"2023","unstructured":"Johnsdorf M, Pham KA, Schmidt T, Truong VL, Wohnig A, Kisker J, Gruber T, Sch\u00f6ne B (2023b) New is not always better: virtual reality does not necessarily enhance mnemonic processing. Front Psychol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1089725","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"issue":"3","key":"1330_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-025-01205-1","volume":"29","author":"M Johnsdorf","year":"2025","unstructured":"Johnsdorf M, Kisker J, Sagehorn M, Gruber T, Sch\u00f6ne B (2025) Memory performance as a function of modality and context: revealing the cognitive mechanisms underlying enhanced memory in virtual reality. Virtual Reality 29(3):128. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10055-025-01205-1","journal-title":"Virtual Reality"},{"issue":"2","key":"1330_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1177\/1754073908100432","volume":"1","author":"EA Kensinger","year":"2009","unstructured":"Kensinger EA (2009) Remembering the details: effects of emotion. Emot Rev 1(2):99\u2013113. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1754073908100432","journal-title":"Emot Rev"},{"issue":"10","key":"1330_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.30773\/pi.2018.06.28.3","volume":"15","author":"H Kim","year":"2018","unstructured":"Kim H, Park JY, Kim KK (2018) Spatial learning and memory using a radial arm maze with a head-mounted display. Psychiatry Investig 15(10):935\u2013944. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.30773\/pi.2018.06.28.3","journal-title":"Psychiatry Investig"},{"key":"1330_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00426-019-01244-9","author":"J Kisker","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kisker J, Gruber T, Sch\u00f6ne B (2019a) Behavioral realism and lifelike psychophysiological responses in virtual reality by the example of a height exposure. Psychol Res. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00426-019-01244-9","journal-title":"Psychol Res"},{"key":"1330_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-019-00257-2","author":"J Kisker","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kisker J, Gruber T, Sch\u00f6ne B (2019b) Experiences in virtual reality entail different processes of retrieval as opposed to conventional laboratory settings: a study on human memory. Curr Psychol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12144-019-00257-2","journal-title":"Curr Psychol"},{"key":"1330_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00426-020-01417-x","author":"J Kisker","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kisker J, Gruber T, Sch\u00f6ne B (2020) Virtual reality experiences promote autobiographical retrieval mechanisms: electrophysiological correlates of laboratory and virtual experiences. Psychol Res. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00426-020-01417-x","journal-title":"Psychol Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"1330_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/20008198.2019.1654782","volume":"10","author":"OD Kothgassner","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kothgassner OD, Goreis A, Kafka JX, Van Eickels RL, Plener PL, Felnhofer A (2019) Virtual reality exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): a meta-analysis. Eur J Psychotraumatol 10(1):1654782. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/20008198.2019.1654782","journal-title":"Eur J Psychotraumatol"},{"issue":"3","key":"1330_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1037\/amp0000185","volume":"73","author":"MA Kredlow","year":"2018","unstructured":"Kredlow MA, Eichenbaum H, Otto MW (2018) Memory creation and modification: enhancing the treatment of psychological disorders. Am Psychol 73(3):269\u2013285. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/amp0000185","journal-title":"Am Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"1330_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-018-0346-3","volume":"23","author":"E Krokos","year":"2019","unstructured":"Krokos E, Plaisant C, Varshney A (2019) Virtual memory palaces: immersion aids recall. Virtual Reality 23(1):1\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10055-018-0346-3","journal-title":"Virtual Reality"},{"key":"1330_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.3389\/frvir.2023.121100","volume":"4","author":"C Kuhne","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kuhne C, Kecelioglu ED, Maltby S, Hood RJ, Knott B, Ditton E, Walker FR, Kluge MG (2023) Direct comparison of virtual reality and 2D delivery on sense of presence, emotional and physiological outcome measures. Front Virtual Real 4:52. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frvir.2023.121100","journal-title":"Front Virtual Real"},{"issue":"1","key":"1330_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/2331186X.2024.2355386","volume":"11","author":"L Kulke","year":"2024","unstructured":"Kulke L, Pasqualette L (2024) Learning from 360-degree videos on a VR headset compared to 2D videos on a monitor. Cogent Educ 11(1):2355386. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/2331186X.2024.2355386","journal-title":"Cogent Educ"},{"key":"1330_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frvir.2021.602087","author":"MH Lamers","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lamers MH, Lanen M (2021) Changing between virtual reality and real-world adversely affects memory recall accuracy. Front Virtual Reality. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frvir.2021.602087","journal-title":"Front Virtual Reality"},{"key":"1330_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X14000041","volume":"38","author":"RD Lane","year":"2015","unstructured":"Lane RD, Ryan L, Nadel L, Greenberg L (2015) Memory reconsolidation, emotional arousal, and the process of change in psychotherapy: new insights from brain science. Behav Brain Sci 38:e1. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0140525X14000041","journal-title":"Behav Brain Sci"},{"key":"1330_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chbr.2021.100130","volume":"4","author":"DJ Lemay","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lemay DJ, Bazelais P, Doleck T (2021) Transition to online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Computers Human Behav Rep 4:100130. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chbr.2021.100130","journal-title":"Computers Human Behav Rep"},{"key":"1330_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2017.06.015","volume":"53","author":"D Makowski","year":"2017","unstructured":"Makowski D, Sperduti M, Nicolas S, Piolino P (2017) \u201cBeing there\u201d and remembering it: presence improves memory encoding. Conscious Cogn 53:194\u2013202. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.concog.2017.06.015","journal-title":"Conscious Cogn"},{"issue":"3","key":"1330_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1162\/105474603765879549","volume":"12","author":"K Mania","year":"2003","unstructured":"Mania K, Troscianko T, Hawkes R, Chalmers A (2003) Fidelity metrics for virtual environment simulations based on spatial memory awareness states. Presence Teleoperators Virtual Environ 12(3):296\u2013310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/105474603765879549","journal-title":"Presence Teleoperators Virtual Environ"},{"issue":"10","key":"1330_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1080\/09658211.2023.2260148","volume":"31","author":"CS Martarelli","year":"2023","unstructured":"Martarelli CS, Chiquet S, Ertl M (2023) Keeping track of reality: embedding visual memory in natural behaviour. Memory 31(10):1295\u20131305. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/09658211.2023.2260148","journal-title":"Memory"},{"issue":"2","key":"1330_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-024-00999-w","volume":"28","author":"M Monaro","year":"2024","unstructured":"Monaro M, Mazza C, Colasanti M, Colicino E, Bosco F, Ricci E, Biondi S, Rossi M, Roma P (2024) Testing memory of a VR environment: comparison with the real environment and 2D pictures. Virtual Reality 28(2):100. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10055-024-00999-w","journal-title":"Virtual Reality"},{"issue":"2","key":"1330_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9020500","volume":"9","author":"JI Montana","year":"2020","unstructured":"Montana JI, Matamala-Gomez M, Maisto M, Mavrodiev PA, Cavalera CM, Diana B, Mantovani F, Realdon O (2020) The benefits of emotion regulation interventions in virtual reality for the improvement of wellbeing in adults and older adults: a systematic review. J Clin Med 9(2):500. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm9020500","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"1330_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"882","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.19.4.882","volume":"19","author":"K Murnane","year":"1993","unstructured":"Murnane K, Phelps MP (1993) A global activation approach to the effect of changes in environmental context on recognition. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 19(4):882\u2013894. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0278-7393.19.4.882","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn"},{"issue":"4","key":"1330_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.128.4.403","volume":"128","author":"K Murnane","year":"1999","unstructured":"Murnane K, Phelps MP, Malmberg K (1999) Context-dependent recognition memory: the ICE theory. J Exp Psychol Gen 128(4):4. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0096-3445.128.4.403","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Gen"},{"issue":"11","key":"1330_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.200724","volume":"8","author":"JMJ Murre","year":"2021","unstructured":"Murre JMJ (2021) The Godden and Baddeley (1975) experiment on context-dependent memory on land and underwater: a replication. R Soc Open Sci 8(11):200724. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rsos.200724","journal-title":"R Soc Open Sci"},{"issue":"3","key":"1330_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1901\/jeab.1969.12-475","volume":"12","author":"JA Nevin","year":"1969","unstructured":"Nevin JA (1969) Signal detection theory and operant behavior: a review of David M. Green and John A. Swets\u2019 Signal detection theory and psychophysics1. J Exp Anal Behav 12(3):475\u2013480. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1901\/jeab.1969.12-475","journal-title":"J Exp Anal Behav"},{"key":"1330_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2015.00660","volume":"9","author":"TD Parsons","year":"2015","unstructured":"Parsons TD (2015) Virtual reality for enhanced ecological validity and experimental control in the clinical, affective and social neurosciences. Front Human Neurosci 9:52. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnhum.2015.00660","journal-title":"Front Human Neurosci"},{"issue":"4","key":"1330_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1089\/cyber.2022.0245","volume":"26","author":"K Pavic","year":"2023","unstructured":"Pavic K, Chaby L, Gricourt T, Vergilino-Perez D (2023) Feeling virtually present makes me happier: the influence of immersion, sense of presence, and video contents on positive emotion induction. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 26(4):238\u2013245. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1089\/cyber.2022.0245","journal-title":"Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw"},{"key":"1330_CR60","unstructured":"Pinheiro, J., Bates, D., DebRoy, S., Sarkar, D., & R Core Team. (2019). nlme: Linear and Nonlinear Mixed Effects Models (Version 3.1\u2013140) [Computer software]. https:\/\/CRAN.R-project.org\/package=nlme"},{"key":"1330_CR61","unstructured":"R Core Team. (2020). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https:\/\/www.R-project.org\/"},{"issue":"1","key":"1330_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1089\/cpb.2006.9993","volume":"10","author":"G Riva","year":"2007","unstructured":"Riva G, Mantovani F, Capideville CS, Preziosa A, Morganti F, Villani D, Gaggioli A, Botella C, Alca\u00f1iz M (2007) Affective interactions using virtual reality: the link between presence and emotions. Cyberpsychol Behav 10(1):45\u201356. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1089\/cpb.2006.9993","journal-title":"Cyberpsychol Behav"},{"issue":"2","key":"1330_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21500\/20112084.7467","volume":"17","author":"SMC Roa","year":"2024","unstructured":"Roa SMC, Rodr\u00edguez BJ (2024) Neurofeedback-driven emotional regulation training in a virtual reality environment: a machine learning approach using OpenBCI. Int J Psychol Res 17(2):2. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21500\/20112084.7467","journal-title":"Int J Psychol Res"},{"key":"1330_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02699931.2024.2354488","author":"F Rocabado","year":"2024","unstructured":"Rocabado F, Du\u00f1abeitia JA (2024) Clouded judgments? The role of virtual weather in word valence evaluations. Cogn Emot. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/02699931.2024.2354488","journal-title":"Cogn Emot"},{"key":"1330_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roediger, H. L. I., & Marsh, E. J. (2003). Episodic and autobiographical memory. In Handbook of psychology: Experimental psychology, Vol. 4. (pp. 475\u2013497). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.","DOI":"10.1002\/0471264385.wei0417"},{"key":"1330_CR66","unstructured":"RStudio Team. (2020). RStudio: integrated development environment for R. RStudio, PBC. http:\/\/www.rstudio.com\/"},{"key":"1330_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chbr.2021.100111","volume":"4","author":"M Rubo","year":"2021","unstructured":"Rubo M, Messerli N, Munsch S (2021) The human source memory system struggles to distinguish virtual reality and reality. Computers Human Behav Rep 4:100111. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chbr.2021.100111","journal-title":"Computers Human Behav Rep"},{"key":"1330_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2023.104325","volume":"166","author":"LD Sarfan","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sarfan LD, Zieve G, Gumport NB, Xiong M, Harvey AG (2023) Optimizing outcomes, mechanisms, and recall of cognitive therapy for depression: dose of constructive memory support strategies. Behav Res Ther 166:104325. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.brat.2023.104325","journal-title":"Behav Res Ther"},{"key":"1330_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1093014","volume":"14","author":"B Sch\u00f6ne","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sch\u00f6ne B, Kisker J, Lange L, Gruber T, Sylvester S, Osinsky R (2023) The reality of virtual reality. Front Psychol 14:52. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1093014","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"1330_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-021-01841-1","author":"B Sch\u00f6ne","year":"2021","unstructured":"Sch\u00f6ne B, Kisker J, Sylvester RS, Gruber T (2021) Library for universal virtual reality experiments (luVRe): a standardized immersive 3D\/360\u00b0 picture and video database for VR based research. Curr Psychol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12144-021-01841-1","journal-title":"Curr Psychol"},{"issue":"3","key":"1330_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-017-9648-y","volume":"38","author":"B Sch\u00f6ne","year":"2019","unstructured":"Sch\u00f6ne B, Wessels M, Gruber T (2019a) Experiences in virtual reality: a window to autobiographical memory. Curr Psychol 38(3):3. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12144-017-9648-y","journal-title":"Curr Psychol"},{"issue":"3","key":"1330_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-017-9648-y","volume":"38","author":"B Sch\u00f6ne","year":"2019","unstructured":"Sch\u00f6ne B, Wessels M, Gruber T (2019b) Experiences in virtual reality: a window to autobiographical memory. Curr Psychol 38(3):715\u2013719. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12144-017-9648-y","journal-title":"Curr Psychol"},{"key":"1330_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbtep.2023.101893","volume":"81","author":"D Schr\u00f6der","year":"2023","unstructured":"Schr\u00f6der D, Wrona KJ, M\u00fcller F, Heinemann S, Fischer F, Dockweiler C (2023) Impact of virtual reality applications in the treatment of anxiety disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized-controlled trials. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 81:101893. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jbtep.2023.101893","journal-title":"J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry"},{"issue":"1","key":"1330_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2196\/48916","volume":"11","author":"S Shahid","year":"2024","unstructured":"Shahid S, Kelson J, Saliba A (2024) Effectiveness and user experience of virtual reality for social anxiety disorder: systematic review. JMIR Ment Health 11(1):e48916. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2196\/48916","journal-title":"JMIR Ment Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"1330_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-020-01835-3","volume":"28","author":"YS Shin","year":"2021","unstructured":"Shin YS, Mas\u00eds-Obando R, Keshavarzian N, D\u00e1ve R, Norman KA (2021) Context-dependent memory effects in two immersive virtual reality environments: on Mars and underwater. Psychon Bull Rev 28(2):574\u2013582. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13423-020-01835-3","journal-title":"Psychon Bull Rev"},{"key":"1330_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-019-01605-w","author":"SA Smith","year":"2019","unstructured":"Smith SA (2019) Virtual reality in episodic memory research: a review. Psychon Bull Rev. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13423-019-01605-w","journal-title":"Psychon Bull Rev"},{"issue":"1","key":"1330_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.3758\/BRM.42.1.292","volume":"42","author":"SM Smith","year":"2010","unstructured":"Smith SM, Manzano I (2010) Video context-dependent recall. Behav Res Methods 42(1):292\u2013301. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/BRM.42.1.292","journal-title":"Behav Res Methods"},{"issue":"2","key":"1330_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03196157","volume":"8","author":"SM Smith","year":"2001","unstructured":"Smith SM, Vela E (2001) Environmental context-dependent memory: a review and meta-analysis. Psychon Bull Rev 8(2):2. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/BF03196157","journal-title":"Psychon Bull Rev"},{"issue":"4","key":"1330_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2626","DOI":"10.1109\/TAFFC.2022.3181053","volume":"14","author":"R Somarathna","year":"2023","unstructured":"Somarathna R, Bednarz T, Mohammadi G (2023) Virtual reality for emotion elicitation \u2013 a review. IEEE Trans Affect Comput 14(4):2626\u20132645. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TAFFC.2022.3181053","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Affect Comput"},{"issue":"5","key":"1330_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1037\/h0020071","volume":"80","author":"E Tulving","year":"1973","unstructured":"Tulving E, Thomson DM (1973) Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychol Rev 80(5):352\u2013373. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/h0020071","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"issue":"5","key":"1330_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.3758\/s13421-020-01024-6","volume":"48","author":"D van Helvoort","year":"2020","unstructured":"van Helvoort D, Stobbe E, Benning R, Otgaar H, van de Ven V (2020) Physical exploration of a virtual reality environment: effects on spatiotemporal associative recognition of episodic memory. Mem Cognit 48(5):691\u2013703. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13421-020-01024-6","journal-title":"Mem Cognit"},{"issue":"3","key":"1330_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0214540","volume":"14","author":"MJ W\u00e4lti","year":"2019","unstructured":"W\u00e4lti MJ, Woolley DG, Wenderoth N (2019) Reinstating verbal memories with virtual contexts: myth or reality? PLoS ONE 14(3):e0214540. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0214540","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"1330_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2022.119596","volume":"263","author":"R Wang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wang R, Yu R, Tian Y, Wu H (2022) Individual variation in the neurophysiological representation of negative emotions in virtual reality is shaped by sociability. Neuroimage 263:119596. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2022.119596","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"issue":"6","key":"1330_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1038\/s44159-024-00312-1","volume":"3","author":"V Wardell","year":"2024","unstructured":"Wardell V, Palombo DJ (2024) Stability and malleability of emotional autobiographical memories. Nat Rev Psychol 3(6):393\u2013406. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s44159-024-00312-1","journal-title":"Nat Rev Psychol"},{"issue":"5","key":"1330_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-5371(76)90045-1","volume":"15","author":"MJ Watkins","year":"1976","unstructured":"Watkins MJ, Ho E, Tulving E (1976) Context effects in recognition memory for faces. J Verbal Learn Verbal Behav 15(5):505\u2013517. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0022-5371(76)90045-1","journal-title":"J Verbal Learn Verbal Behav"},{"key":"1330_CR001","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wessels M, Valuch C, Schacht A, Kulke L (2019a) Differences in incidental memory of virtual reality compared to 2D videos of emotional scenes. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17605\/OSF.IO\/FUJPR","DOI":"10.17605\/OSF.IO\/FUJPR"},{"key":"1330_CR002","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wessels M, Valuch C, Schacht A, Kulke L (2019b) Retrieving incidental memories in Virtual Reality. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17605\/OSF.IO\/Z76SJ","DOI":"10.17605\/OSF.IO\/Z76SJ"},{"issue":"5","key":"1330_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.3758\/s13415-022-01013-z","volume":"22","author":"SE Williams","year":"2022","unstructured":"Williams SE, Ford JH, Kensinger EA (2022) The power of negative and positive episodic memories. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci 22(5):869\u2013903. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13415-022-01013-z","journal-title":"Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci"},{"key":"1330_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2023.04.043","volume":"333","author":"KP Wong","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wong KP, Lai CYY, Qin J (2023) Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials for evaluating the effectiveness of virtual reality therapy for social anxiety disorder. J Affect Disord 333:353\u2013364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jad.2023.04.043","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"1330_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.575094","author":"J Wu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Wu J, Sun Y, Zhang G, Zhou Z, Ren Z (2021) Virtual reality-assisted cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Psych. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.575094","journal-title":"Front Psych"},{"key":"1330_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"M Yu Y Bai Y Li 2023 Emo-regulator: An emotion-regulation training system fusing virtual reality and EEG-based neurofeedback. Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society Annual International Conference 2023 1 4 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/EMBC40787.2023.10340975","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC40787.2023.10340975"},{"issue":"1","key":"1330_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2009.04601.x","volume":"1167","author":"J Zaki","year":"2009","unstructured":"Zaki J, Ochsner K (2009) The need for a cognitive neuroscience of naturalistic social cognition. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1167(1):16\u201330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2009.04601.x","journal-title":"Ann N Y Acad Sci"}],"container-title":["Virtual Reality"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10055-026-01330-5","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10055-026-01330-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10055-026-01330-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T12:31:15Z","timestamp":1773923475000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s10055-026-01330-5"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]]},"references-count":92,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["1330"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10055-026-01330-5","relation":{},"ISSN":["1434-9957"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1434-9957","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]]},"assertion":[{"value":"10 September 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"26 January 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 March 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interests"}}],"article-number":"85"}}