{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T08:03:06Z","timestamp":1784188986449,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775001600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,25]],"date-time":"2026-05-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779667200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":54,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Geogr Syst"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Spatial disaggregation models may employ a cross-scale approach, namely a regression predicting values of a variable at small area level, although observations are at an aggregated region level. These constitute target and source areas in dasymetric mapping terminology. Existing cross-scale models consider single target variables only, with limited role for ancillary indicators. We consider here more general causally oriented approaches with disaggregation modelling as a constituent feature. The first involves multiple target indicators of a latent neighbourhood health risk factor to predict observed health outcomes. The second, a multiple outcome framework, considers prediction of multiple target indicators from observed health indicators. We use Bayesian inference which adapts straightforwardly to multiple likelihoods and sharing of spatial information via random effects. Two case studies are included. The first considers four adverse environmental characteristics as target indicators for 1002 neighbourhoods (substance use, sexual infection rates, violent crime and drug crime), though they are only observed for 33 London local authorities. Modelled adverse environmental measures are combined in a single neighbourhood latent construct to predict psychosis prevalence. The second case study considers impacts of neighbourhood crime on indicators of neighbourhood social cohesion, so is a social indicator application rather than health risk application. We assess impacts of crime\u2014expected, and confirmed, to be negative\u2014on feelings of belonging to the neighbourhood, neighbourly interactions, neighbourhood trust, and formal volunteering.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10109-026-00495-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,25]],"date-time":"2026-05-25T04:22:48Z","timestamp":1779682968000},"page":"281-311","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["An extended framework for spatial disaggregation models"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1934-9205","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter","family":"Congdon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,25]]},"reference":[{"issue":"8","key":"495_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.10814","volume":"116","author":"J Abellan","year":"2008","unstructured":"Abellan J, Richardson S, Best N (2008) Use of space\u2013time models to investigate the stability of patterns of disease. Environ Health Perspect 116(8):1111\u20131119","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"issue":"5","key":"495_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.187.5.401","volume":"187","author":"J Allardyce","year":"2005","unstructured":"Allardyce J, Gilmour H, Atkinson J, Rapson T, Bishop J, McCreadie R (2005) Social fragmentation, deprivation and urbanicity: relation to first-admission rates for psychoses. Br J Psychiatry 187(5):401\u2013406","journal-title":"Br J Psychiatry"},{"issue":"5","key":"495_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2019.12.022","volume":"58","author":"G Baranyi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Baranyi G, Cherrie M, Curtis S, Dibben C, Pearce J (2020) Neighborhood crime and psychotropic medications: a longitudinal data linkage study of 130,000 Scottish adults. Am J Prev Med 58(5):638\u2013647","journal-title":"Am J Prev Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"495_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1080\/17445647.2013.764830","volume":"9","author":"F Batista e Silva","year":"2013","unstructured":"Batista e Silva F, Gallego J, Lavalle C (2013) A high-resolution population grid map for Europe. J Maps 9(1):16\u201328","journal-title":"J Maps"},{"issue":"2","key":"495_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1007\/s10708-009-9326-1","volume":"77","author":"M Bertotti","year":"2012","unstructured":"Bertotti M, Adams-Eaton F, Sheridan K, Renton A (2012) Key barriers to community cohesion: views from residents of 20 London deprived neighbourhoods. GeoJournal 77(2):223\u2013234","journal-title":"GeoJournal"},{"key":"495_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00116466","volume":"43","author":"J Besag","year":"1991","unstructured":"Besag J, York J, Molli\u00e9 A (1991) Bayesian image restoration, with two applications in spatial statistics. Ann Inst Stat Math 43:1\u201320","journal-title":"Ann Inst Stat Math"},{"issue":"1","key":"495_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2517-6161.1963.tb00504.x","volume":"25","author":"M Birch","year":"1963","unstructured":"Birch M (1963) Maximum likelihood in three-way contingency tables. J R Stat Soc B Stat Methodol 25(1):220\u2013233","journal-title":"J R Stat Soc B Stat Methodol"},{"issue":"10","key":"495_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1949","DOI":"10.1177\/00420980221136960","volume":"60","author":"T Blokland","year":"2023","unstructured":"Blokland T, Vief R, Kr\u00fcger D, Schultze H (2023) Roots and routes in neighbourhoods. Length of residence, belonging and public familiarity in Berlin, Germany. Urban Stud 60(10):1949\u20131967","journal-title":"Urban Stud"},{"issue":"4","key":"495_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1080\/10618600.1998.10474787","volume":"7","author":"S Brooks","year":"1998","unstructured":"Brooks S, Gelman A (1998) General methods for monitoring convergence of iterative simulations. J Comput Graph Stat 7(4):434\u2013455","journal-title":"J Comput Graph Stat"},{"issue":"6","key":"495_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00930892","volume":"16","author":"J Buckner","year":"1988","unstructured":"Buckner J (1988) The development of an instrument to measure neighborhood cohesion. Am J Community Psychol 16(6):771\u2013791","journal-title":"Am J Community Psychol"},{"issue":"2","key":"495_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1323","DOI":"10.1007\/s12145-021-00737-9","volume":"15","author":"J Burian","year":"2022","unstructured":"Burian J, Zapletal J, P\u00e1szto V (2022) Disaggregator\u2013a tool for the aggregation and disaggregation of spatial data. Earth Sci Inform 15(2):1323\u20131339","journal-title":"Earth Sci Inform"},{"issue":"8","key":"495_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.201200365","volume":"64","author":"T Byrne","year":"2013","unstructured":"Byrne T, Prvu Bettger J, Brusilovskiy E, Wong Y, Metraux S, Salzer M (2013) Comparing neighborhoods of adults with serious mental illness and of the general population: research implications. Psychiatr Serv 64(8):782\u2013788","journal-title":"Psychiatr Serv"},{"issue":"1","key":"495_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1093\/geront\/gnw187","volume":"58","author":"Y Choi","year":"2018","unstructured":"Choi Y, Matz-Costa C (2018) Perceived neighborhood safety, social cohesion, and psychological health of older adults. Gerontologist 58(1):196\u2013206","journal-title":"Gerontologist"},{"key":"495_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Congdon P (2026) Spatial disaggregation for relative risks, with an application to drug related problems in North East England. J R Stat Soc Ser A 189, in press","DOI":"10.1093\/jrsssa\/qnaf190"},{"issue":"1","key":"495_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1093\/jrsssa\/qnae114","volume":"188","author":"A Djennad","year":"2025","unstructured":"Djennad A, Harris R, Presanis A, Jahr S, Charlett A, De Angelis D (2025) Estimating prevalence of opiate and crack cocaine use and injecting in England using mixed-effects capture\u2013recapture models. J R Stat Soc Ser A Stat Soc 188(1):68\u201383","journal-title":"J R Stat Soc Ser A Stat Soc"},{"issue":"1","key":"495_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-023-02489-x","volume":"59","author":"J Dykxhoorn","year":"2024","unstructured":"Dykxhoorn J, Osborn D, Fischer L, Troy D, Kirkbride J, Walters K (2024) Measuring social exclusion and its distribution in England. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 59(1):187\u2013198","journal-title":"Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol"},{"key":"495_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1559\/152304001782173727","volume":"28","author":"C Eicher","year":"2001","unstructured":"Eicher C, Brewer C (2001) Dasymetric mapping and areal interpolation: implementation and evaluation. Cartogr Geogr Inf Sci 28:125\u2013138","journal-title":"Cartogr Geogr Inf Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"495_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1093\/jurban\/jtg063","volume":"80","author":"G Evans","year":"2003","unstructured":"Evans G (2003) The built environment and mental health. J Urban Health 80(4):536\u2013555","journal-title":"J Urban Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"495_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1435-5597.1991.tb01734.x","volume":"70","author":"R Flowerdew","year":"1991","unstructured":"Flowerdew R, Green M, Kehris E (1991) Using areal interpolation methods in geographic information systems. Pap Reg Sci 70(3):303\u2013315","journal-title":"Pap Reg Sci"},{"key":"495_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/82.3.479","volume":"82","author":"A Gelfand","year":"1995","unstructured":"Gelfand A, Sahu S, Carlin B (1995) Efficient parametrisations for normal linear mixed models. Biometrika 82:479\u2013488","journal-title":"Biometrika"},{"key":"495_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gilks, W, Richardson, S., Spiegelhalter, D. (eds) (1995) Markov Chain Monte Carlo in Practice. CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/b14835"},{"key":"495_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthplace.2023.103084","volume":"83","author":"J Gizamba","year":"2023","unstructured":"Gizamba J, Wilson J, Mendenhall E, Ferguson L (2023) A review of place-related contextual factors in syndemics research. Health Place 83:103084","journal-title":"Health Place"},{"key":"495_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2016.01.001","volume":"166","author":"T Glass","year":"2016","unstructured":"Glass T, Bilal U (2016) Are neighborhoods causal? Complications arising from the \u2018stickiness\u2019 of ZNA. Soc Sci Med 166:244\u2013253","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"495_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1007\/s001270050027","volume":"33","author":"G Glover","year":"1998","unstructured":"Glover G, Robin E, Emami J, Arabscheibani G (1998) A needs index for mental health care. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 33(2):89\u201396","journal-title":"Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol"},{"key":"495_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2024.103333","volume":"169","author":"B He","year":"2024","unstructured":"He B, Gilligan J, Camp J (2024) Incorporating spatial autocorrelation in dasymetric mapping: a hierarchical Poisson spatial disaggregation regression model. Appl Geogr 169:103333","journal-title":"Appl Geogr"},{"issue":"1","key":"495_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1037\/tps0000387","volume":"10","author":"Z Horsham","year":"2024","unstructured":"Horsham Z, Abrams D, Davies B, Lalot F (2024) Social cohesion and volunteering: correlates, causes, and challenges. Transl Issues Psychol Sci 10(1):51","journal-title":"Transl Issues Psychol Sci"},{"key":"495_CR28","volume-title":"Obesity Statistics","author":"House of Commons Library","year":"2025","unstructured":"House of Commons Library (2025) Obesity Statistics. HMSO, London"},{"issue":"11","key":"495_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1913","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-021-02042-8","volume":"56","author":"H Jongsma","year":"2021","unstructured":"Jongsma H, Karlsen S, Kirkbride J, Jones P (2021) Understanding the excess psychosis risk in ethnic minorities: the impact of structure and identity. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 56(11):1913\u20131921","journal-title":"Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol"},{"key":"495_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kano Y (2007) Selection of manifest variables. In: Handbook of latent variable and related models, ed Sik-yum Lee. North-Holland. pp. 65\u201386","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-044452044-9\/50007-0"},{"key":"495_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kano Y (2007) Selection of manifest variables. In Handbook of latent variable and related models. North-Holland. pp. 65\u201386","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-044452044-9\/50007-0"},{"issue":"1","key":"495_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-985X.00187","volume":"164","author":"L Knorr-Held","year":"2001","unstructured":"Knorr-Held L, Best N (2001) A shared component model for detecting joint and selective clustering of two diseases. J R Stat Soc Ser A Stat Soc 164(1):73\u201385","journal-title":"J R Stat Soc Ser A Stat Soc"},{"issue":"2","key":"495_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.2307\/2580416","volume":"75","author":"L Krivo","year":"1996","unstructured":"Krivo L, Peterson R (1996) Extremely disadvantaged neighborhoods and urban crime. Soc Forces 75(2):619\u2013648","journal-title":"Soc Forces"},{"issue":"5-6","key":"495_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2218","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260520935096","volume":"37","author":"R Lacey","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lacey R, Howe L, Kelly-Irving M, Bartley M, Kelly Y (2022) The clustering of adverse childhood experiences in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children: are gender and poverty important? J Interpers Violence 37(5\u20136):2218\u20132241","journal-title":"J Interpers Violence"},{"key":"495_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1519814","author":"C Latkin","year":"2003","unstructured":"Latkin C, Curry A (2003) Stressful neighborhoods and depression: a prospective study of the impact of neighborhood disorder. J Health Soc Behav. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/1519814","journal-title":"J Health Soc Behav"},{"key":"495_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4612-1284-3_4","volume-title":"Statistical models in epidemiology, the environment, and clinical trials","author":"B Leroux","year":"2000","unstructured":"Leroux B, Lei X, Breslow N (2000) Estimation of disease rates in small areas: a new mixed model for spatial dependence. Statistical models in epidemiology, the environment, and clinical trials. Springer New York, New York, NY, pp 179\u2013191"},{"key":"495_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sste.2020.100357","volume":"41","author":"T Lucas","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lucas T, Nandi A, Keddie S, Chestnutt E, Howes R, Rumisha S, Weiss D (2022) Improving disaggregation models of malaria incidence by ensembling non-linear models of prevalence. Spat Spatiotemporal Epidemiol 41:100357","journal-title":"Spat Spatiotemporal Epidemiol"},{"key":"495_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lunn D. Jackson C, Best N, Thomas A, Spiegelhalter D (2013) The BUGS book. A practical introduction toBayesian analysis, Chapman Hall, London.","DOI":"10.1201\/b13613"},{"issue":"25","key":"495_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3049","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.3680","volume":"28","author":"D Lunn","year":"2009","unstructured":"Lunn D, Spiegelhalter D, Thomas A, Best N (2009) The BUGS project: evolution, critique and future directions. Stat Med 28(25):3049\u20133067","journal-title":"Stat Med"},{"issue":"7","key":"495_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1747","DOI":"10.1111\/add.15336","volume":"116","author":"H Manhica","year":"2021","unstructured":"Manhica H, Straatmann V, Lundin A, Agardh E, Danielsson A (2021) Association between poverty exposure during childhood and adolescence, and drug use disorders and drug-related crimes later in life. Addiction 116(7):1747\u20131756","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"issue":"663","key":"495_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e676","DOI":"10.3399\/bjgp17X692309","volume":"67","author":"J McLaughlin","year":"2017","unstructured":"McLaughlin J, Hamilton K, Kipping R (2017) Epidemiology of adult overweight recording and management by UK GPs: a systematic review. Br J Gen Pract 67(663):e676\u2013e683","journal-title":"Br J Gen Pract"},{"key":"495_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1975)014<0985:CBDLTF>2.0.CO;2","volume":"14","author":"P Mielke","year":"1975","unstructured":"Mielke P (1975) Convenient beta distribution likelihood techniques for describing and comparing meteorological data. J Appl Meteorol 14:985\u2013990","journal-title":"J Appl Meteorol"},{"key":"495_CR43","unstructured":"Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government (2025) English Indices of Deprivation 2025. https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/statistics\/english-indices-of-deprivation-2025"},{"issue":"8","key":"495_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1068\/a311337","volume":"31","author":"A Mugglin","year":"1999","unstructured":"Mugglin A, Carlin B, Zhu L, Conlon E (1999) Bayesian areal interpolation, estimation, and smoothing: an inferential approach for geographic information systems. Environ Plan A 31(8):1337\u20131352","journal-title":"Environ Plan A"},{"key":"495_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v106.i11","volume":"106","author":"A Nandi","year":"2023","unstructured":"Nandi A, Lucas T, Arambepola R, Gething P, Weiss D (2023) Disaggregation: an R package for Bayesian spatial disaggregation modelling. J Stat Softw 106:11","journal-title":"J Stat Softw"},{"issue":"2","key":"495_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbx060","volume":"44","author":"J Newbury","year":"2018","unstructured":"Newbury J, Arseneault L, Caspi A, Moffitt T, Odgers C, Fisher H (2018) Cumulative effects of neighborhood social adversity and personal crime victimization on adolescent psychotic experiences. Schizophr Bull 44(2):348\u2013358","journal-title":"Schizophr Bull"},{"key":"495_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2022.101028","volume":"17","author":"M Oberndorfer","year":"2022","unstructured":"Oberndorfer M, Dorner T, Leyland A, Grabovac I, Schober T, \u0160ramek L, Bilger M (2022) The challenges of measuring social cohesion in public health research: a systematic review and ecometric meta-analysis. SSM Popul Health 17:101028","journal-title":"SSM Popul Health"},{"key":"495_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12942-025-00450-6","author":"D Payares-Garcia","year":"2026","unstructured":"Payares-Garcia D, Osei F, Mateu J, Stein A (2026) Spatial downscaling of multivariate disease risk. Int J Health Geogr. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12942-025-00450-6","journal-title":"Int J Health Geogr"},{"issue":"2","key":"495_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyaa006","volume":"49","author":"F Piel","year":"2020","unstructured":"Piel F, Fecht D, Hodgson S, Blangiardo M, Toledano M, Hansell A, Elliott P (2020) Small-area methods for investigation of environment and health. Int J Epidemiol 49(2):686\u2013699","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"495_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1080\/19317611.2021.1919950","volume":"33","author":"D Pittman","year":"2021","unstructured":"Pittman D, Rush C, Litt S, Minges M, Quayson A (2021) Psychological distress as a primer for sexual risk taking among emerging adults. Int J Sex Health 33(3):371\u2013384","journal-title":"Int J Sex Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"495_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-015-1827-x","volume":"15","author":"R Rothenberg","year":"2015","unstructured":"Rothenberg R, Stauber C, Weaver S, Dai D, Prasad A, Kano M (2015) Urban health indicators and indices-current status. BMC Public Health 15(1):494","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"495_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rupasingha A, Goetz S, Freshwater D (2006) The production of social capital in US counties. J Socio-econom 35(1):83-101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socec.2005.11.001"},{"key":"495_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1201\/9780203489437","volume-title":"Generalized latent variable modeling: multilevel, longitudinal, and structural equation models","author":"A Skrondal","year":"2004","unstructured":"Skrondal A, Rabe-Hesketh S (2004) Generalized latent variable modeling: multilevel, longitudinal, and structural equation models. Chapman and Hall\/CRC"},{"issue":"4","key":"495_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1080\/07418820400096001","volume":"21","author":"P Stretesky","year":"2004","unstructured":"Stretesky P, Schuck A, Hogan M (2004) Space matters: an analysis of poverty, poverty clustering, and violent crime. Justice Q 21(4):817\u2013841","journal-title":"Justice Q"},{"issue":"1","key":"495_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-13-421","volume":"13","author":"H Sturrock","year":"2014","unstructured":"Sturrock H, Cohen J, Keil P, Tatem A, Le Menach A, Ntshalintshali N, Hsiang M, Gosling R (2014) Fine-scale malaria risk mapping from routine aggregated case data. Malar J 13(1):421. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1475-2875-13-421","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"495_CR57","volume-title":"Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States (NSDUH Series H-57)","author":"Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA)","year":"2022","unstructured":"Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) (2022) Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States (NSDUH Series H-57). SAMHSA, Rockville, Maryland"},{"issue":"1","key":"495_CR58","first-page":"18","volume":"6","author":"A Thomas","year":"2006","unstructured":"Thomas A (2006) The BUGS language. R News 6(1):18\u201321","journal-title":"R News"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"495_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2010.10.012","volume":"115","author":"A Turner","year":"2011","unstructured":"Turner A, Latkin C, Sonenstein F, Tandon S (2011) Psychiatric disorder symptoms, substance use, and sexual risk behavior among African-American out of school youth. Drug Alcohol Depend 115(1\u20132):67\u201373","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend"},{"key":"495_CR61","unstructured":"UK Government (2025) Community Life Survey 2024\/25: Neighbourhood and Community. https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/statistics\/community-life-survey-202425annual-publication\/community-life-survey-202425-neighbourhood-andcommunity"},{"issue":"1","key":"495_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1633","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-09611-1","volume":"10","author":"C Utazi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Utazi C, Thorley J, Alegana V, Ferrari M, Takahashi S, Metcalf C, Tatem A (2019) Mapping vaccination coverage to explore the effects of delivery mechanisms and inform vaccination strategies. Nat Commun 10(1):1633","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"1","key":"495_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1515\/em-2013-0005","volume":"3","author":"T VanderWeele","year":"2014","unstructured":"VanderWeele T, Knol M (2014) A tutorial on interaction. Epidemiologic Methods 3(1):33\u201372","journal-title":"Epidemiologic Methods"},{"issue":"4","key":"495_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.184.4.287","volume":"184","author":"J Van Os","year":"2004","unstructured":"Van Os J (2004) Does the urban environment cause psychosis? Br J Psychiatry 184(4):287\u2013288","journal-title":"Br J Psychiatry"},{"issue":"4","key":"495_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbs050","volume":"38","author":"F Varese","year":"2012","unstructured":"Varese F, Smeets F, Drukker M, Lieverse R, Lataster T, Viechtbauer W, Bentall R (2012) Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: a meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective-and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophr Bull 38(4):661\u2013671","journal-title":"Schizophr Bull"},{"key":"495_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1214\/12-SS102","volume":"6","author":"A Vehtari","year":"2012","unstructured":"Vehtari A, Ojanen J (2012) A survey of Bayesian predictive methods for model assessment, selection and comparison. Statist Surv 6:142\u2013228","journal-title":"Statist Surv"},{"issue":"3","key":"495_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1725","DOI":"10.1353\/sof.2006.0073","volume":"84","author":"A Villarreal","year":"2006","unstructured":"Villarreal A, Silva B (2006) Social cohesion, criminal victimization and perceived risk of crime in Brazilian neighborhoods. Soc Forces 84(3):1725\u20131753","journal-title":"Soc Forces"},{"issue":"4","key":"495_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1093\/biostatistics\/4.4.569","volume":"4","author":"F Wang","year":"2003","unstructured":"Wang F, Wall M (2003) Generalized common spatial factor model. Biostatistics 4(4):569\u2013582","journal-title":"Biostatistics"},{"key":"495_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2013.02.028","volume":"85","author":"M Wilson-Genderson","year":"2013","unstructured":"Wilson-Genderson M, Pruchno R (2013) Effects of neighborhood violence and perceptions of neighborhood safety on depressive symptoms of older adults. Soc Sci Med 85:43\u201349","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"495_CR69","unstructured":"Woolf, S, Aron, L (2013) Physical and social environmental factors. Chapter 7 in US Health in International Perspective: Shorter Lives, Poorer Health. National Academies Press (US)."},{"issue":"10","key":"495_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1002\/pds.5117","volume":"29","author":"X Zhang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Zhang X, Stamey J, Mathur M (2020) Assessing the impact of unmeasured confounders for credible and reliable real-world evidence. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 29(10):1219\u20131227","journal-title":"Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf"},{"key":"495_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291725000455","volume":"55","author":"Y Zhang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Zhang Y, Coid J (2025) Testing syndemic models along pathways to psychotic spectrum disorder: implications for population-level preventive interventions. Psychol Med 55:e85","journal-title":"Psychol Med"}],"container-title":["Journal of Geographical Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10109-026-00495-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10109-026-00495-6","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10109-026-00495-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T07:03:52Z","timestamp":1784185432000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s10109-026-00495-6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"references-count":69,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["495"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10109-026-00495-6","relation":{},"ISSN":["1435-5930","1435-5949"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1435-5930","type":"print"},{"value":"1435-5949","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"assertion":[{"value":"21 June 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 March 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 May 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no conflicts of interest.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Conflict of interest","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}]}}