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Secur."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are prone to several cyber-attacks, including global positioning system (GPS) spoofing. The use of machine learning and deep learning are becoming increasingly common for UAV GPS spoofing attack detection; however, these approaches have some limitations, such as a high rate of false alarm and misdetection. We propose using capsule networks to detect and classify UAV-focused GPS spoofing attacks. This paper compares simple capsule networks, efficient capsule networks, dual attention capsule networks, and convolutional neural network in terms of accuracy, probability of detection, probability of misdetection, probability of false alarm, prediction time, training time per sample, and memory size. The results indicate that the Efficient-capsule network outperforms the other models, as demonstrated by an accuracy of 99.1%, a probability of detection of 99.9%, a probability of misdetection of 0.1%, a probability of false alarm of 0.37%, a prediction time of 0.5 seconds, a training time per sample of 0.2 seconds, and a memory size of 123 mebibytes for binary classification.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10207-024-00978-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]],"date-time":"2025-01-15T12:45:00Z","timestamp":1736945100000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Performance analysis of capsule networks for detecting GPS spoofing attacks on unmanned aerial vehicles"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Tala","family":"Talaei\u00a0Khoei","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Khair","family":"Al\u00a0Shamaileh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Vijaya Kumar","family":"Devabhaktuni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Naima","family":"Kaabouch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]]},"reference":[{"issue":"4","key":"978_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.21513","volume":"31","author":"AJ Kerns","year":"2014","unstructured":"Kerns, A.J., Shepard, D.P., Bhatti, J.A., Humphreys, T.E.: Unmanned aircraft capture and control via GPS spoofing. 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