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Previous research showed that humans give copious feedback early in training but very sparsely thereafter. In this article, we investigate the potential of agent learning from trainers\u2019 facial expressions via interpreting them as evaluative feedback. To do so, we implemented TAMER which is a popular interactive reinforcement learning method in a reinforcement-learning benchmark problem\u2014Infinite Mario, and conducted the first large-scale study of TAMER involving 561 participants. With designed CNN\u2013RNN model, our analysis shows that telling trainers to use facial expressions and competition can improve the accuracies for estimating positive and negative feedback using facial expressions. In addition, our results with a simulation experiment show that learning solely from predicted feedback based on facial expressions is possible and using strong\/effective prediction models or a regression method, facial responses would significantly improve the performance of agents. Furthermore, our experiment supports previous studies demonstrating the importance of bi-directional feedback and competitive elements in the training interface.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10458-020-09447-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,12]],"date-time":"2020-02-12T20:02:47Z","timestamp":1581537767000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Facial feedback for reinforcement learning: a case study and offline analysis using the TAMER framework"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"34","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1728-5711","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guangliang","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0851-7808","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hamdi","family":"Dibeklio\u011flu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shimon","family":"Whiteson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hayley","family":"Hung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,12]]},"reference":[{"issue":"5","key":"9447_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2008.10.024","volume":"57","author":"BD Argall","year":"2009","unstructured":"Argall, B. 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