{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,27]],"date-time":"2026-01-27T10:34:57Z","timestamp":1769510097114,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":124,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,13]],"date-time":"2025-02-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1739404800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,13]],"date-time":"2025-02-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1739404800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Artif Intell Rev"],"DOI":"10.1007\/s10462-025-11122-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,13]],"date-time":"2025-02-13T08:04:43Z","timestamp":1739433883000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["A review on persian question answering systems: from traditional to modern approaches"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"58","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7118-7640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Safoura Aghadavoud","family":"Jolfaei","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6443-7450","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Azadeh","family":"Mohebi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"11122_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Abadani N, Mozafari J, Fatemi A, Nematbakhsh MA, Kazemi A (2021) ParSQuAD: machine translated SQuAD dataset for persian question answering. 2021 7th Int Conf Web Res ICWR 2021 163\u2013168. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ICWR51868.2021.9443126","DOI":"10.1109\/ICWR51868.2021.9443126"},{"key":"11122_CR2","unstructured":"Abaskohi A, Baruni S, Masoudi M, Abbasi N, Babalou MH, Edalat A, Kamahi S, Sani SM, Naghavian N, Namazifard D (2023) Benchmarking large Language models for Persian. A Preliminary Study Focusing on ChatGPT"},{"key":"11122_CR3","unstructured":"Abbasi MA, Ghafouri A, Firouzmandi M, Naderi H, Bidgoli BM (n.d.) (eds) PersianLLaMA: Towards Building First Persian Large Language Model. 1\u201323"},{"key":"11122_CR125","unstructured":"Achiam J, Adler S, Agarwal S, Ahmad L, Akkaya I, Aleman FL, Almeida D, Altenschmidt J, Altman S, Anadkat S, Avila R (2023) \u201cGpt-4 technical report.\u201d arXiv preprint http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/arXiv:2303.08774"},{"key":"11122_CR4","unstructured":"Agarwal R (n.d.) (ed) Zero-shot Factual Consistency Evaluation Across Domains. 1\u201321"},{"key":"11122_CR5","unstructured":"Alam F, Chowdhury SA, Boughorbel S, Hasanain M (2024) LLMs for low resource languages in multilingual, multimodal and dialectal settings. EACL 2024\u201318th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Proceedings of Tutorial Abstracts, 27\u201333"},{"issue":"1","key":"11122_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1007\/s10462-021-10031-1","volume":"55","author":"TH Alwaneen","year":"2022","unstructured":"Alwaneen TH, Azmi AM, Aboalsamh HA, Cambria E, Hussain A (2022) Arabic question answering system: a survey. Artif Intell Rev 55(1):207\u2013253. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10462-021-10031-1","journal-title":"Artif Intell Rev"},{"key":"11122_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00500-023-08959-3","author":"H Amirkhani","year":"2023","unstructured":"Amirkhani H, AzariJafari M, Faridan-Jahromi S, Kouhkan Z, Pourjafari Z, Amirak A (2023) FarsTail: a Persian natural language inference dataset. Soft Comput. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00500-023-08959-3.","journal-title":"Soft Comput"},{"key":"11122_CR8","unstructured":"Anil R, Dai AM, Firat O, Johnson M, Lepikhin D, Passos A, Shakeri S, Taropa E, Bailey P, Chen Z, Chu E, Clark JH, Shafey L, El, Huang Y, Meier-Hellstern K, Mishra G, Moreira E, Omernick M, Robinson K, Wu Y (2023) PaLM 2 Technical Report. May. http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2305.10403"},{"key":"11122_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Antoniou C, Bassiliades N (2022) A survey on semantic question answering systems. 1\u201342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0269888921000138","DOI":"10.1017\/S0269888921000138"},{"key":"11122_CR11","unstructured":"Artetxe M, Ruder S, Yogatama D (2019) On the Cross-lingual transferability of monolingual representations. CoRR, abs\/1910.1. http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1910.11856"},{"key":"11122_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Artetxe M, Labaka G, Agirre E (2020) Translation artifacts in cross-lingual transfer learning. In: Proc 2020 Conf Empir Methods Nat Lang Process (EMNLP) 7674\u20137684. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/2020.emnlp-main.618","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2020.emnlp-main.618"},{"key":"11122_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Babaei Giglou H, Beyranvand N, Moradi R, Salehoof AM, Bibak S (2022) ParsSimpleQA: the Persian simple question answering dataset and system over knowledge graph. Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop on Natural Language Processing for Digital Humanities, 59\u201368. https:\/\/aclanthology.org\/2022.nlp4dh-1.9","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2022.nlp4dh-1.9"},{"key":"11122_CR13","unstructured":"Banerjee, S., & Lavie, A. (2005). METEOR: An automatic metric for MT evaluation with improved correlation with human judgments. Proceedings of the ACL Workshop on Intrinsic and Extrinsic Evaluation Measures for Machine Translation and\/or Summarization, 65\u201372"},{"key":"11122_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berant J, Chou A, Frostig R, Liang P (2013) Semantic Parsing on {F}reebase from Question-Answer Pairs. In: Proceedings of the 2013 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, 1533\u20131544. https:\/\/aclanthology.org\/D13-1160","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/D13-1160"},{"key":"11122_CR15","unstructured":"Bordes A, Usunier N, Chopra S, Weston J (2015) Large-scale simple question answering with memory networks. CoRR, abs\/1506.0. http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1506.02075"},{"issue":"Awict","key":"11122_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2015.12.005","volume":"73","author":"A Bouziane","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bouziane A, Bouchiha D, Doumi N, Malki M (2015) Question answering systems: survey and trends. Procedia - Procedia Comput Sci 73(Awict):366\u2013375. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.procs.2015.12.005","journal-title":"Procedia - Procedia Comput Sci"},{"key":"11122_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bui T, Tran O, Nguyen P, Ho B, Nguyen L, Bui T, Quan T (2024) Cross-data knowledge graph construction for LLM-enabled educational question-answering system: a case study at HCMUT. In: Proc 1st ACM Workshop AI-Powered Q&A Syst Multimedia 36\u201343. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3643479.3662055","DOI":"10.1145\/3643479.3662055"},{"issue":"6","key":"11122_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jksuci.2018.08.005","volume":"32","author":"MA Calijorne Soares","year":"2020","unstructured":"Calijorne Soares MA, Parreiras FS (2020) A literature review on question answering techniques, paradigms and systems. J King Saud Univ - Comput Inform Sci 32(6):635\u2013646. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jksuci.2018.08.005","journal-title":"J King Saud Univ - Comput Inform Sci"},{"issue":"January","key":"11122_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"200336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iswa.2024.200336","volume":"21","author":"L Caruccio","year":"2024","unstructured":"Caruccio L, Cirillo S, Polese G, Solimando G, Sundaramurthy S, Tortora G (2024) Intelligent Systems with Applications Claude 2.0 large language model: tackling a real-world classification problem with a new iterative prompt engineering approach. Intell Syst Appl 21(January):200336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.iswa.2024.200336","journal-title":"Intell Syst Appl"},{"issue":"3","key":"11122_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2015.01.002","volume":"51","author":"Y Chali","year":"2015","unstructured":"Chali Y, Hasan SA, Mojahid M (2015) A reinforcement learning formulation to the complex question answering problem. Inf Process Manag 51(3):252\u2013272. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ipm.2015.01.002","journal-title":"Inf Process Manag"},{"key":"11122_CR21","unstructured":"Chan Y, Oct CL, Pu G, Jenks P (2024) Balancing cost and effectiveness of Synthetic Data Generation Strategies for LLMs. NeurIPS"},{"key":"11122_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chen A, Stanovsky G, Singh S, Gardner M (2019) Evaluating question answering evaluation. MRQA@EMNLP 2019 - Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Machine Reading for Question Answering, 119\u2013124. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/d19-5817","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/d19-5817"},{"key":"11122_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-40802-1_30","volume-title":"Information Access evaluation. Multilinguality, multimodality, and visualization","author":"P Cimiano","year":"2013","unstructured":"Cimiano P, Lopez V, Unger C, Cabrio E, Ngonga Ngomo A-C, Walter S (2013) Multilingual question answering over Linked Data (QALD-3): lab overview. In: Forner P, M\u00fcller H, Paredes R, Rosso P, Stein B (eds) Information Access evaluation. Multilinguality, multimodality, and visualization. Springer, Berlin, pp 321\u2013332"},{"key":"11122_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Clark E, Celikyilmaz A, Smith NA (2019) Sentence Mover{\u2019}s similarity: automatic evaluation for multi-sentence texts. In: Proc 57th Annual Meeting Association Comput Linguistics 2748\u20132760. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/P19-1264","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/P19-1264"},{"key":"11122_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Conneau A, Khandelwal K, Goyal N, Chaudhary V, Wenzek G, Guzm\u00e1n F, Grave E, Ott M, Zettlemoyer L, Stoyanov V (2020) Unsupervised cross-lingual representation learning at Scale. 8440\u20138451. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/2020.acl-main.747","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2020.acl-main.747"},{"key":"11122_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101486","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csl.2023.101486","volume":"80","author":"K Darvishi","year":"2023","unstructured":"Darvishi K, Shahbodaghkhan N, Abbasiantaeb Z, Momtazi S (2023) PQuAD: A Persian question answering dataset. Comput Speech Lang 80:101486. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.csl.2023.101486","journal-title":"Comput Speech Lang"},{"key":"11122_CR27","unstructured":"Daull, X., Bellot, P., Bruno, E., Martin, V., & Murisasco, E. (2023). Complex QA and language models hybrid architectures, Survey. arXiv preprint http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/arXiv:2302.09051."},{"key":"11122_CR28","first-page":"4171","volume":"1Mlm","author":"J Devlin","year":"2019","unstructured":"Devlin J, Chang MW, Lee K, Toutanova K (2019) BERT: pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. NAACL HLT 2019\u20132019 Conf North Am Chapter Association Comput Linguistics: Hum Lang Technol - Proc Conf 1Mlm:4171\u20134186","journal-title":"NAACL HLT 2019\u20132019 Conf North Am Chapter Association Comput Linguistics: Hum Lang Technol - Proc Conf"},{"key":"11122_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dimitrakis E, Sgontzos K, Tzitzikas Y (2019) A survey on question answering systems over linked data and documents","DOI":"10.1007\/s10844-019-00584-7"},{"issue":"2","key":"11122_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1007\/s10844-019-00584-7","volume":"55","author":"E Dimitrakis","year":"2020","unstructured":"Dimitrakis E, Sgontzos K, Tzitzikas Y (2020) A survey on question answering systems over linked data and documents. J Intell Inform Syst 55(2):233\u2013259. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10844-019-00584-7","journal-title":"J Intell Inform Syst"},{"key":"11122_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Do H, Ostrand R, Weisz J, Dugan C, Sattigeri P, Wei D, Murugesan K, Geyer W (2024) Facilitating human-LLM collaboration through factuality scores and source attributions. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2405.20434","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2405.20434"},{"issue":"3","key":"11122_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.14569\/IJACSA.2021.0120359","volume":"12","author":"SSAN Elfadil","year":"2021","unstructured":"Elfadil SSAN, Jarajreh M, Algarni S (2021) Question Answering systems: a systematic literature review. Int J Adv Comput Sci Appl 12(3):495\u2013502. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.14569\/IJACSA.2021.0120359","journal-title":"Int J Adv Comput Sci Appl"},{"key":"11122_CR34","unstructured":"Etezadi R, Shamsfard M (2020a) A Knowledge-based approach for answering complex questions in Persian"},{"key":"11122_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Etezadi R, Shamsfard M (2020b) PeCoQ: A dataset for persian complex question answering over knowledge graph. In: 2020 11th International Conference on Information and Knowledge Technology, IKT 2020, 102\u2013106. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/IKT51791.2020.9345610","DOI":"10.1109\/IKT51791.2020.9345610"},{"key":"11122_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Etezadi R, Karrabi M, Zare N, Sajadi MB, Pilehvar MT (2022) DadmaTools: a natural language processing toolkit for the Persian language. Proceedings of the 2022 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies: System Demonstrations, 124\u2013130","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2022.naacl-demo.13"},{"issue":"6","key":"11122_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3831","DOI":"10.1007\/s11063-021-10528-4","volume":"53","author":"M Farahani","year":"2021","unstructured":"Farahani M, Gharachorloo M, Farahani M, Manthouri M (2021) ParsBERT: transformer-based model for Persian language. Neural Process Lett 53(6):3831\u20133847. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11063-021-10528-4","journal-title":"Neural Process Lett"},{"key":"11122_CR37","unstructured":"Farea A, Yang Z, Duong K, Perera N, Emmert-Streib F (2022) Evaluation of question answering systems: complexity of judging a natural language. http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2209.12617"},{"key":"11122_CR38","unstructured":"Fayyaz M, Yin F, Sun J, Peng N, Angeles L (2024) Evaluating human alignment and model faithfulness of LLM rationale"},{"key":"11122_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1609\/aimag.v31i3.2303","volume":"31","author":"D Ferrucci","year":"2010","unstructured":"Ferrucci D, Brown E, Chu-Carroll J, Fan J, Gondek D, Kalyanpur A, Lally A, Murdock JW, Nyberg E, Prager J, Schlaefer N, Welty C (2010) Building Watson: an overview of the DeepQA project. AI Magazine 31:59\u201379","journal-title":"AI Magazine"},{"key":"11122_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"ForutanRad J, HourAli M, KeyvanRad M (2024) Farsi question and answer dataset (FarsiQuAD). Signal Data Process 20(4). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.61186\/jsdp.20.4.107.","DOI":"10.61186\/jsdp.20.4.107"},{"key":"11122_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Franco W, Avila CVAOS, Maia G, Brayner A, Vidal VMP, Carvalho F, Pequen V (2020) Ontology-based question answering systems over knowledge bases: a survey. In: 22nd International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems (ICEIS 2020), 532\u2013539","DOI":"10.5220\/0009392205320539"},{"key":"11122_CR42","unstructured":"Fu Y, Ou L, Chen M, Wan Y, Peng H, Khot T (2023) Chain-of-Thought Hub: A Continuous Effort to Measure Large Language Models' Reasoning Performance. arXiv preprint http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/arXiv:2305.17306."},{"key":"11122_CR44","unstructured":"Gao Y, Xiong Y, Gao X, Jia K, Pan J, Bi Y, Dai Y, Sun J, Wang H (2023) Retrieval-augmented generation for large language models: A survey. arXiv preprint http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2312.10997"},{"key":"11122_CR45","unstructured":"Ghafouri A, Naderi H, Firouzmandi M (2023) IslamicPCQA: A Dataset for Persian Multi-hop Complex Question Answering in Islamic Text Resources. arXiv preprint http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2304.11664"},{"key":"11122_CR46","unstructured":"Ghahroodi O, Nouri M, Sanian MV, Sahebi A, Dastgheib D (2024) Khayyam challenge (PersianMMLU). Is Your LLM Truly Wise"},{"issue":"1","key":"11122_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.22044\/JADM.2021.10016.2142","volume":"10","author":"S Golzari","year":"2022","unstructured":"Golzari S, Sanei F, Saybani MR, Harifi A, Basir M (2022) Question classification in question answering system using combination of ensemble classification and feature selection. J AI Data Min 10(1):15\u201324. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.22044\/JADM.2021.10016.2142","journal-title":"J AI Data Min"},{"key":"11122_CR48","unstructured":"GPT-4 Technical Report (2023) 4, 1\u2013100"},{"key":"11122_CR49","unstructured":"Habib MK (2021) The challenges of Persian user-generated textual content: a machine learning-based approach. 1\u201312. http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2101.08087"},{"issue":"3","key":"11122_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csl.2011.11.001","volume":"26","author":"MH Heie","year":"2012","unstructured":"Heie MH, Whittaker EWD, Furui S (2012) Question answering using statistical language modelling. Comput Speech Lang 26(3):193\u2013209. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.csl.2011.11.001","journal-title":"Comput Speech Lang"},{"key":"11122_CR51","unstructured":"Hu EJ, Shen Y, Wallis P, Allen-Zhu Z, Li Y, Wang S, Chen W (2021) LoRA: low-rank adaptation of large language models. CoRR, abs\/2106.09685. https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2106.09685"},{"key":"11122_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang Q, Bu J, Xie W, Yang S, Wu W, Liu L (2019) Multi-task sentence encoding model for semantic retrieval in question answering systems. July, pp 1\u20138","DOI":"10.1109\/IJCNN.2019.8852327"},{"key":"11122_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jalali Farahani F, Ghassem-Sani G (2021) BERT-PersNER: a new model for Persian named entity recognition. In: Proceedings of the International Conference Recent Advances in Natural Language Processing, 647\u2013654","DOI":"10.26615\/978-954-452-072-4_073"},{"key":"11122_CR54","unstructured":"Jamali N, Yaghoobzadeh Y, Faili H (2021) PerCQA: Persian community question answering dataset. http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2112.13238"},{"key":"11122_CR55","unstructured":"Javier P, Su\u00e1rez O, Romary L, Sagot B (2020) A monolingual approach to contextualized word embeddings for mid-resource languages. 1703\u20131714"},{"key":"11122_CR56","unstructured":"Jurafsky D, Martin JH (2020) Speech and language processing"},{"key":"11122_CR57","unstructured":"Kale M (2020) mT5: a massively multilingual pre-trained text-to-text transformer"},{"key":"11122_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26045","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3157289","volume":"10","author":"A Kazemi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kazemi A, Mozafari J, Nematbakhsh MA (2022) PersianQuAD: the native question answering dataset for the Persian language. IEEE Access 10:26045\u201326057. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3157289","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"11122_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kazemi A, Zojaji Z, Malverdi M, Mozafari J, Ebrahimi F, Abadani N, Varasteh MR, Nematbakhsh MA (2023) FarsNewsQA: a deep learning-based question answering system for the persian news articles. Inform Retr J 26(1). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10791-023-09417-2","DOI":"10.1007\/s10791-023-09417-2"},{"key":"11122_CR60","unstructured":"Khandelwal A, Singh H, Gu H, Chen T, Zhou K (2024) A simple contrastive learning based approach"},{"key":"11122_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Khvalchik M, Galkin M (2020) El Departamento de Nosotros: how machine translated corpora affects language models in MRC tasks. ArXiv. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arxiv.2007.01955","DOI":"10.48550\/arxiv.2007.01955"},{"key":"11122_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lan Z, Chen M, Goodman S, Gimpel K, Sharma P, Soricut R (2019) ALBERT: a lite BERT for self-supervised learning of language representations. ArXiv. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.1909.11942","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.1909.11942"},{"key":"11122_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lan Y, Li X, Liu X, Li Y, Qin W, Qian W (2023) Improving zero-shot visual question answering via large language models with reasoning question prompts. MM 2023 - Proceedings of the 31st ACM International Conference on Multimedia, 4389\u20134400. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3581783.3612389","DOI":"10.1145\/3581783.3612389"},{"key":"11122_CR64","unstructured":"Latifi M (2018) Using natural language processing for question answering in closed and open domains. TDX (Tesis Doctorals En Xarxa), March, 1\u2013165"},{"key":"11122_CR65","unstructured":"Leite B, Cardoso HL (2024) In Narrative comprehension a."},{"key":"11122_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lewis P, Oguz B, Rinott R, Riedel S, Schwenk H (2020) MLQA: evaluating cross-lingual extractive question answering. 7315\u20137330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/2020.acl-main.653","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2020.acl-main.653"},{"key":"11122_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li X, Roth D (2002) Learning question classifiers. {COLING} 2002: The 19th International Conference on Computational Linguistics. https:\/\/aclanthology.org\/C02-1150","DOI":"10.3115\/1072228.1072378"},{"key":"11122_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li T, Ma X, Zhuang A, Gu Y, Su Y, Chen W (2023) Few-shot In-context learning for knowledge base question answering. 1, 6966\u20136980","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.acl-long.385"},{"key":"11122_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Li Z, Fan S, Gu Y, Li X, Duan Z, Dong B, Liu N, Wang J (2024) FlexKBQA: a flexible LLM-powered framework for few-shot knowledge base question answering. In: Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 38(17), 18608\u201318616. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1609\/aaai.v38i17.29823","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v38i17.29823"},{"key":"11122_CR70","unstructured":"Lin, C. Y. (2004). Rouge: A package for automatic evaluation of summaries. In Text summarization branches out Post-Conference Workshop of ACL, pp. 74-81 https:\/\/aclanthology.org\/W04-1013.pdf"},{"key":"11122_CR71","unstructured":"Liu T, Zhang Y, Brockett C, Mao Y, Sui Z, Chen W, Dolan B (2019) A token-level Reference-. free Hallucination Detection Benchmark for Free-form Text Generation"},{"key":"11122_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Liu X, Lai H, Yu H, Xu Y, Zeng A, Du Z, Zhang P, Dong Y, Tang J (2023) WebGLM: towards an efficient web-enhanced question answering system with human preferences. In: Proceedings of the ACM SIGKDD international conference on knowledge discovery and data mining, 4549\u20134560. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3580305.3599931","DOI":"10.1145\/3580305.3599931"},{"key":"11122_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.websem.2013.05.006","volume":"21","author":"V Lopez","year":"2013","unstructured":"Lopez V, Unger C, Cimiano P, Motta E (2013) Evaluating question answering over linked data. J Web Semant 21:3\u201313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.websem.2013.05.006","journal-title":"J Web Semant"},{"key":"11122_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Manning C, Surdeanu M, Bauer J, Finkel J, Bethard S, McClosky D (2014) The stanford CoreNLP natural language processing toolkit. In: Proceedings of 52Nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: System Demonstrations. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3115\/v1\/P14-5010","DOI":"10.3115\/v1\/P14-5010"},{"key":"11122_CR75","unstructured":"Masumi M, Majd SS, Shamsfard M, Beigy H, Science C (2024) FaBERT: Pre-training BERT on persian Blogs"},{"issue":"3","key":"11122_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jksuci.2014.10.007","volume":"28","author":"A Mishra","year":"2016","unstructured":"Mishra A, Jain SK (2016) A survey on question answering systems with classification. J King Saud Univ - Comput Inform Sci 28(3):345\u2013361. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jksuci.2014.10.007","journal-title":"J King Saud Univ - Comput Inform Sci"},{"key":"11122_CR77","unstructured":"Mishra AK, Saxena PA (2019) Survey on question and answering retrieval system using Hadoop. 1100\u20131103"},{"key":"11122_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Mozafari J, Kazemi A, Moradi P, Nematbakhsh MA (2022) PerAnSel: a novel deep neural network-based system for Persian question answering. Comput Intell Neurosci 2022(1). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2022\/3661286","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/3661286"},{"key":"11122_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymeth.2014.10.023","volume":"74","author":"M Neves","year":"2015","unstructured":"Neves M, Leser U (2015) Question answering for biology. Methods 74:36\u201346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ymeth.2014.10.023","journal-title":"Methods"},{"key":"11122_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.13052\/jwe1540-9589.1785","volume":"17","author":"B Ojokoh","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ojokoh B, Adebisi E (2019) Rev Question Answering Syst 17:717\u2013758. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.13052\/jwe1540-9589.1785","journal-title":"Rev Question Answering Syst"},{"key":"11122_CR81","unstructured":"OpenAI (2023) GPT turbo 3.5. https:\/\/platform.openai.com\/docs\/models\/gpt-3-5"},{"issue":"10","key":"11122_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.1109\/TKDE.2009.191","volume":"22","author":"SJ Pan","year":"2010","unstructured":"Pan SJ, Yang Q (2010) A survey on transfer learning. IEEE Trans Knowl Data Eng 22(10):1345\u20131359. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TKDE.2009.191","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Knowl Data Eng"},{"key":"11122_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Papineni K, Roukos S, Ward T, Zhu W-J (2002) {B}leu: a method for automatic evaluation of machine translation. In: Proceedings of the 40th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 311\u2013318. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3115\/1073083.1073135","DOI":"10.3115\/1073083.1073135"},{"key":"11122_CR84","unstructured":"Poostchi H, Borzeshi Z, E., Piccardi M (2018) BiLSTM-CRF for Persian named-entity recognition ArmanPersoNERCorpus: the first entity-annotated Persian dataset. In: Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation ({LREC} 2018)"},{"key":"11122_CR85","unstructured":"Prabhu VVD, Anand A (2024) DEXTER: a Benchmark for open-domain Complex question answering using LLMs. 1\u201322. http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2406.17158"},{"key":"11122_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pundge AM (2016) Question answering system, approaches techniques: a review 141(3):34\u201339","DOI":"10.5120\/ijca2016909587"},{"key":"11122_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Qi P, Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Bolton J, Manning CD (2020) {S}tanza: a Python Natural Language processing toolkit for many human languages. In: Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: System Demonstrations, 101\u2013108. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/2020.acl-demos.14","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2020.acl-demos.14"},{"key":"11122_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Rajpurkar P, Zhang J, Lopyrev K, Liang P (2016) SQuad: 100,000\u2009+\u2009questions for machine comprehension of text. EMNLP 2016 - Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, Proceedings, 2383\u20132392. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/d16-1264","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/d16-1264"},{"key":"11122_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rajpurkar P, Jia R, Liang P (2018) Know what you don\u2019t know: unanswerable questions for SQuAD. ArXiv, pp 784\u2013789","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/P18-2124"},{"key":"11122_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogsys.2017.07.002","volume":"47","author":"M Razzaghnoori","year":"2018","unstructured":"Razzaghnoori M, Sajedi H, Jazani IK (2018) Question classification in Persian using word vectors and frequencies. Cogn Syst Res 47:16\u201327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cogsys.2017.07.002","journal-title":"Cogn Syst Res"},{"key":"11122_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1162\/tacl_a_00349","volume":"8","author":"A Rogers","year":"2020","unstructured":"Rogers A, Kovaleva O, Rumshisky A (2020) A primer in bertology: what we know about how bert works. Trans Assoc Comput Linguistics 8:842\u2013866. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/tacl_a_00349","journal-title":"Trans Assoc Comput Linguistics"},{"key":"11122_CR92","unstructured":"Rostami P, Salemi A, Dousti MJ (2023) PersianMind: a cross-Lingual Persian-English Large Language Model"},{"issue":"21","key":"11122_CR93","first-page":"7206","volume":"96","author":"A Roustaei","year":"2018","unstructured":"Roustaei A, Rastegari H (2018) Persian question classification using headword and semantic features. J Theoretical Appl Inform Technol 96(21):7206\u20137214","journal-title":"J Theoretical Appl Inform Technol"},{"issue":"3","key":"11122_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20453","DOI":"10.18535\/ijecs\/v6i3.09","volume":"6","author":"A Saini","year":"2017","unstructured":"Saini A, Yadav PK (2017) A Survey on question\u2013answering system. Int J Eng Comput Sci 6(3):20453\u201320457. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18535\/ijecs\/v6i3.09","journal-title":"Int J Eng Comput Sci"},{"key":"11122_CR95","unstructured":"Sajadi MB, Bidgoli BM, Hadian A (2018) FarsBase: a cross-domain farsi knowledge graph. CEUR Workshop Proceedings, 2198, 4\u20137"},{"key":"11122_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Salemi A, Kebriaei E, Neisi Minaei G, Shakery A (2021) ARMAN: pre-training with semantically selecting and reordering of sentences for Persian Abstractive Summarization. 9391\u20139407. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/2021.emnlp-main.741","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2021.emnlp-main.741"},{"key":"11122_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saxena Y, Chopra S, Tripathi AM (2024) Evaluating consistency and reasoning capabilities of Large Language Models","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDSIS61070.2024.10594233"},{"key":"11122_CR98","unstructured":"Schmidt M, Bartezzaghi A, Vu NT (2024) Prompting-based synthetic data generation for few-shot question answering. 13168\u201313178"},{"key":"11122_CR99","unstructured":"Settles B (2009) Computer aciences active learning literature survey. January"},{"key":"11122_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Shahriar et al (2023) MeDiaPQA: a question-answering dataset on Persian medical dialogues. Mendeley Data, V1. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17632\/k7tzmrhr6n.1","DOI":"10.17632\/k7tzmrhr6n.1"},{"key":"11122_CR101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Shahshahani MS, Mohseni M, Shakery A, Faili H (2019) PAYMA: a tagged corpus of Persian named entities. Signal Data Process 16(1). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.29252\/jsdp.16.1.91","DOI":"10.29252\/jsdp.16.1.91"},{"key":"11122_CR102","unstructured":"Shamsfard M (2019) Challenges and Opportunities in Processing Low Resource Languages: a study on Persian. International Conference Language Technologies for All (LT4All): Enabling Linguistic Diversity and Multilingualism Worldwide, 291\u2013295. https:\/\/lt4all.org\/media\/papers\/O9\/168.pdf"},{"key":"11122_CR103","unstructured":"Shavrina T (2022) mGPT: Few-shot learners go Multilingual. ii"},{"key":"11122_CR104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Shuster K, Poff S, Chen M, Kiela D, Weston J (2021) Retrieval augmentation reduces hallucination in conversation. In M.-F. Moens, X. Huang, L. Specia, & S. W. Yih (Eds.), Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (pp. 3784\u20133803). Association for Computational Linguistics. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/2021.findings-emnlp.320","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2021.findings-emnlp.320"},{"key":"11122_CR105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Snell R (2009) The Indo-Aryan languages. By Colin P. Masica. (Cambridge Language Surveys.) pp. xvi, 539. Cambridge etc., Cambridge University Press, 1991. \u00a365.00. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 4, 284\u2013285. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1356186300005678","DOI":"10.1017\/S1356186300005678"},{"key":"11122_CR106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tam D (2023) Evaluating the factual consistency of large language models through news summarization. 5220\u20135255","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.findings-acl.322"},{"key":"11122_CR107","unstructured":"Thakur N, Reimers N, Ruckl\u2019e A, Srivastava A, Gurevych I (2021) BEIR: a heterogenous benchmark for zero-shot evaluation of Information Retrieval models. ArXiv, abs\/2104.0. https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:233296016"},{"issue":"46","key":"11122_CR108","first-page":"62","volume":"13","author":"N Tohidi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Tohidi N, Dadkhah C, Rustamov RB (2021) Optimizing persian multi-objective question answering system. Int J Tech Phys Probl Eng 13(46):62\u201369","journal-title":"Int J Tech Phys Probl Eng"},{"key":"11122_CR109","unstructured":"Touvron, H., Martin, L., Stone, K., Albert, P., Almahairi, A., Babaei, Y.,... & Scialom, T. (2023). Llama 2: Open foundation and fine-tuned chat models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2307.09288."},{"key":"11122_CR110","unstructured":"Vaswani A, Shazeer N, Parmar N, Uszkoreit J, Jones L, Gomez AN, Kaiser \u0141, Polosukhin I (2017) Attention is all you need. Adv Neural Inform Process Syst 2017-Decem(Nips), 5999\u20136009"},{"key":"11122_CR111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Veisi H, Shandi HF (2020) A Persian Medical question answering system. 29(6):1\u201329. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1142\/S0218213020500190","DOI":"10.1142\/S0218213020500190"},{"key":"11122_CR112","unstructured":"Wang C, Xu Y, Peng Z, Zhang C, Chen B, Wang X, Feng L, An B (2023a) Keqing: knowledge-based question answering is a nature chain-of-thought mentor of LLM. http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2401.00426"},{"key":"11122_CR114","unstructured":"Wang Y, Ma X, Chen W (2023b) Augmenting black-box LLMs with medical textbooks for clinical question answering. http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2309.02233"},{"key":"11122_CR113","unstructured":"Wang J, Yang Z, Yao Z, Yu H (2024) JMLR: Joint Medical LLM and Retrieval Training for Enhancing Reasoning and Professional Question Answering Capability. http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2402.17887"},{"key":"11122_CR115","unstructured":"Wei J, Schuurmans D, Chi EH, Le QV, Jan CL (2022) Chain-of-thought prompting elicits reasoning in large Language models. NeurIPS, pp 1\u201343"},{"key":"11122_CR116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wolfson T, Bogin B, Katz U, Deutch D, Berant J (2023) Answering questions by meta-reasoning over multiple chains of thought. 5942\u20135966","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.emnlp-main.364"},{"key":"11122_CR117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Yang Z, Qi P, Zhang S, Bengio Y, Cohen W, Salakhutdinov R, Manning CD (2018) {H}otpot{QA}: A dataset for diverse, explainable multi-hop question answering. In: Proceedings of the 2018 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, 2369\u20132380. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/D18-1259","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/D18-1259"},{"key":"11122_CR118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Yogish, D., Manjunath, T. N., & Hegadi, R. S. (2016). A survey of intelligent question answering system using nlp and information retrieval techniques. International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer and Communication Engineering, 5(5), 536-540. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17148\/IJARCCE.2016.55134","DOI":"10.17148\/IJARCCE.2016.55134"},{"key":"11122_CR119","unstructured":"Zaib M, Zhang WE, Sheng QZ, Mahmood A, Zhang Y (2021) Conversational question answering: a survey. http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2106.00874"},{"key":"11122_CR120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zan D, Chen B, Zhang F, Lu D, Wu B, Guan B, Wang Y, Lou JG (2023) Large Language Models Meet NL2Code: a survey. In: Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 1(2), 7443\u20137464. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/2023.acl-long.411","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.acl-long.411"},{"key":"11122_CR121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zhang T, Kishore V, Wu F, Weinberger KQ, Artzi Y (2019) BERTScore: evaluating text generation with BERT. ArXiv, abs\/1904.0. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.1904.09675","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.1904.09675"},{"key":"11122_CR122","unstructured":"Zhang Y, Chen Z, Fang Y, Lu Y, Li F, Zhang W, Chen H (2023) Knowledgeable preference alignment for LLMs in domain-specific question answering. http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2311.06503"},{"key":"11122_CR124","unstructured":"Zhao, Z., Jin, Q., Chen, F., Peng, T., & Yu, S. (2022). Pmc-patients: A large-scale dataset of patient summaries and relations for benchmarking retrieval-based clinical decision support systems. arXiv preprint arXiv:2202.13876. https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2202.13876"},{"key":"11122_CR123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zhao W, Liu Y, Niu T, Wan Y, Yu PS, Joty S, Zhou Y, Yavuz S (2024) DIVKNOWQA: Assessing the Reasoning Ability of LLMs via Open-Domain Question Answering over Knowledge Base and Text. Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: NAACL 2024 - Findings, 51\u201368. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/2024.findings-naacl.5","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2024.findings-naacl.5"}],"container-title":["Artificial Intelligence Review"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10462-025-11122-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10462-025-11122-z\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10462-025-11122-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,4]],"date-time":"2025-04-04T07:06:21Z","timestamp":1743750381000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s10462-025-11122-z"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,13]]},"references-count":124,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]}},"alternative-id":["11122"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10462-025-11122-z","relation":{},"ISSN":["1573-7462"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1573-7462","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,13]]},"assertion":[{"value":"23 January 2025","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"13 February 2025","order":2,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"127"}}