{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T02:49:30Z","timestamp":1774406970547,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,16]],"date-time":"2022-02-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644969600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,16]],"date-time":"2022-02-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644969600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"swiss science foundation","award":["SNST 407540_166999"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SNST 407540_166999"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009572","name":"University of St.Gallen","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009572","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Ann Oper Res"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>We analyse a sequential contest with two players in darts where one of the contestants enjoys a technical advantage. Using methods from the causal machine learning literature, we analyse the built-in advantage, which is the first-mover having potentially more but never less moves. Our empirical findings suggest that the first-mover has an 8.6% points higher probability to win the match induced by the technical advantage. Contestants with low performance measures and little experience have the highest built-in advantage. With regard to the fairness principle that contestants with equal abilities should have equal winning probabilities, this contest is ex-ante fair in the case of equal built-in advantages for both competitors and a randomized starting right. Nevertheless, the contest design produces unequal probabilities of winning for equally skilled contestants because of asymmetries in the built-in advantage associated with social pressure for contestants competing at home and away.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10479-022-04563-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,16]],"date-time":"2022-02-16T14:02:46Z","timestamp":1645020166000},"page":"649-679","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Analysing a built-in advantage in asymmetric darts contests using causal machine learning"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"325","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3879-0744","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Goller","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,16]]},"reference":[{"issue":"5","key":"4563_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2548","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.100.5.2548","volume":"100","author":"J Apesteguia","year":"2010","unstructured":"Apesteguia, J., & Palacios-Huerta, I. (2010). Psychological pressure in competitive environments: Evidence from a randomized natural experiment. American Economic Review, 100(5), 2548\u20132564.","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"issue":"2","key":"4563_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-937X.2009.00534.x","volume":"76","author":"D Ariely","year":"2009","unstructured":"Ariely, D., Gneezy, U., Loewenstein, G., & Mazar, N. (2009). Large stakes and big mistakes. The Review of Economic Studies, 76(2), 451\u2013469.","journal-title":"The Review of Economic Studies"},{"issue":"2","key":"4563_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejor.2020.03.025","volume":"287","author":"R Arlegi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Arlegi, R., & Dimitrov, D. (2020). Fair elimination-type competitions. European Journal of Operational Research, 287(2), 528\u2013535.","journal-title":"European Journal of Operational Research"},{"key":"4563_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aal4321","volume":"355","author":"S Athey","year":"2017","unstructured":"Athey, S. (2017). Beyond prediction: Using big data for policy problems. Science, 355, 483\u2013485.","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"27","key":"4563_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7353","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1510489113","volume":"113","author":"S Athey","year":"2016","unstructured":"Athey, S., & Imbens, G. (2016). Recursive partitioning for heterogeneous causal effects. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(27), 7353\u20137360.","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"4563_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-economics-080217-053433","volume":"11","author":"S Athey","year":"2019","unstructured":"Athey, S., & Imbens, G. W. (2019). Machine learning methods that economists should know about. Annual Review of Economics, 11, 685\u2013725.","journal-title":"Annual Review of Economics"},{"issue":"2","key":"4563_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1179","DOI":"10.1214\/18-AOS1709","volume":"47","author":"S Athey","year":"2019","unstructured":"Athey, S., Tibshirani, J., & Wager, S. (2019). Generalized random forests. Annals of Statistics, 47(2), 1179\u20131203.","journal-title":"Annals of Statistics"},{"issue":"2","key":"4563_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1353\/obs.2019.0001","volume":"5","author":"S Athey","year":"2019","unstructured":"Athey, S., & Wager, S. (2019). Estimating treatment effects with causal forests: An application. Observational Studies, 5(2), 37\u201351.","journal-title":"Observational Studies"},{"issue":"3","key":"4563_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.46.3.610","volume":"46","author":"R Baumeister","year":"1984","unstructured":"Baumeister, R. (1984). Choking under pressure: Self-consciousness and paradoxical effects of incentives on skillful performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(3), 610\u2013620.","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"issue":"6","key":"4563_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1447","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.48.6.1447","volume":"48","author":"R Baumeister","year":"1985","unstructured":"Baumeister, R., Hamilton, J., & Tice, D. (1985). Public versus private expectancy of success: Confidence booster or performance pressure? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(6), 1447\u20131457.","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"4563_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","volume":"45","author":"L Breiman","year":"2001","unstructured":"Breiman, L. (2001). Random forests. Machine Learning, 45, 5\u201332.","journal-title":"Machine Learning"},{"issue":"5","key":"4563_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.75.5.1213","volume":"75","author":"J Butler","year":"1998","unstructured":"Butler, J., & Baumeister, R. (1998). The trouble with friendly faces: Skilled performance with a supportive audience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(5), 1213.","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"issue":"3","key":"4563_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1177\/1527002511404785","volume":"12","author":"Z Cao","year":"2011","unstructured":"Cao, Z., Price, J., & Stone, D. (2011). Performance under pressure in the NBA. Journal of Sports Economics, 12(3), 231\u2013252.","journal-title":"Journal of Sports Economics"},{"issue":"1","key":"4563_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C1","DOI":"10.1111\/ectj.12097","volume":"21","author":"V Chernozhukov","year":"2018","unstructured":"Chernozhukov, V., Chetverikov, D., Demirer, M., Duflo, E., Hansen, C., Newey, W., & Robins, J. (2018). Double\/debiased machine learning for treatment and structural parameters. The Econometrics Journal, 21(1), C1\u2013C68.","journal-title":"The Econometrics Journal"},{"issue":"6","key":"4563_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1911","DOI":"10.3982\/ECTA14415","volume":"86","author":"V Chernozhukov","year":"2018","unstructured":"Chernozhukov, V., Fern\u00e1ndez-Val, I., & Luo, Y. (2018). The sorted effects method: Discovering heterogeneous effects beyond their averages. Econometrica, 86(6), 1911\u20131938.","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"4563_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jebo.2017.12.012","volume":"146","author":"D Cohen-Zada","year":"2018","unstructured":"Cohen-Zada, D., Krumer, A., & Shapir, O. (2018). Testing the effect of serve order in tennis tiebreak. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 146, 106\u2013115.","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization"},{"issue":"5","key":"4563_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.p20171000","volume":"107","author":"J Davis","year":"2017","unstructured":"Davis, J., & Heller, S. (2017). Using causal forests to predict treatment heterogeneity: An application to summer jobs. American Economic Review: Papers & Proceedings, 107(5), 546\u2013550.","journal-title":"American Economic Review: Papers & Proceedings"},{"key":"4563_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jebo.2005.12.004","volume":"65","author":"T Dohmen","year":"2008","unstructured":"Dohmen, T. (2008). Do professionals choke under pressure? Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 65, 636\u2013653.","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization"},{"issue":"6","key":"4563_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1307","DOI":"10.1086\/261736","volume":"98","author":"R Ehrenberg","year":"1990","unstructured":"Ehrenberg, R., & Bognanno, M. (1990). Do tournaments have incentive effects? Journal of Political Economy, 98(6), 1307\u20131324.","journal-title":"Journal of Political Economy"},{"key":"4563_CR20","unstructured":"Fan, Q., Hsu, Y.-C., Lieli, R., & Zhang, Y. (2019). Estimation of conditional average treatment effects with high-dimensional data. arXiv:1908.02399"},{"issue":"1","key":"4563_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1257\/000282803321455296","volume":"93","author":"V Ginsburgh","year":"2003","unstructured":"Ginsburgh, V., & Van Ours, J. (2003). Expert opinion and compensation: Evidence from a musical competition. American Economic Review, 93(1), 289\u2013296.","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"key":"4563_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goller, D., Harrer, T., Lechner, M., & Wolff, J. (2021). Active labour market policies for the long-term unemployed: New evidence from causal machine learning. IZA Discussion Papers 14486. Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3874358"},{"key":"4563_CR23","unstructured":"Goller, D., Knaus, M. C., Lechner, M., & Okasa, G. (2018). Predicting match outcomes in football by an ordered forest estimator. Economics Working Paper Series No. 1811."},{"issue":"2","key":"4563_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejor.2020.03.062","volume":"286","author":"D Goller","year":"2020","unstructured":"Goller, D., & Krumer, A. (2020). Let\u2019s meet as usual: Do games played on non-frequent days differ? Evidence from top European soccer leagues. European Journal of Operational Research, 286(2), 740\u2013754.","journal-title":"European Journal of Operational Research"},{"issue":"3","key":"4563_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jebo.2012.09.021","volume":"84","author":"J Gonz\u00e1lez-D\u00edaz","year":"2012","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez-D\u00edaz, J., Gossner, O., & Rogers, B. (2012). Performing best when it matters most: Evidence from professional tennis. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 84(3), 767\u2013781.","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization"},{"key":"4563_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jebo.2019.09.001","volume":"166","author":"K Harb-Wu","year":"2019","unstructured":"Harb-Wu, K., & Krumer, A. (2019). Choking under pressure in front of a supportive audience: Evidence from professional biathlon. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 166, 246\u2013262.","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization"},{"key":"4563_CR27","volume-title":"The elements of statistical learning\u2014Data mining, inference, and prediction","author":"T Hastie","year":"2009","unstructured":"Hastie, T., Tibshirani, R., & Friedman, J. (2009). The elements of statistical learning\u2014Data mining, inference, and prediction (2nd ed.). Springer.","edition":"2"},{"issue":"396","key":"4563_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1986.10478354","volume":"81","author":"P Holland","year":"1986","unstructured":"Holland, P. (1986). Statistics and causal inference. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 81(396), 945\u2013960.","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"issue":"1","key":"4563_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejor.2007.09.005","volume":"192","author":"W Hurley","year":"2009","unstructured":"Hurley, W. (2009). Equitable birthdate categorization systems for organized minor sports competition. European Journal of Operational Research, 192(1), 253\u2013264.","journal-title":"European Journal of Operational Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"4563_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geb.2012.04.005","volume":"76","author":"R Kirkegaard","year":"2012","unstructured":"Kirkegaard, R. (2012). Favoritism in asymmetric contests: Head starts and handicaps. Games and Economic Behavior, 76(1), 226\u2013248.","journal-title":"Games and Economic Behavior"},{"key":"4563_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jebo.2019.10.026","volume":"169","author":"B Klein Teeselink","year":"2020","unstructured":"Klein Teeselink, B., Potter Van Loon, R., Van Den Assem, M., & Van Dolder, D. (2020). Incentives, performance and choking in darts. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 169, 38\u201352.","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization"},{"key":"4563_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Knaus, M. (2020). Double machine learning based program evaluation under unconfoundedness. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3368\/jhr.57.2.0718-9615R1","DOI":"10.3368\/jhr.57.2.0718-9615R1"},{"key":"4563_CR33","unstructured":"Knaus, M., Lechner, M., & Strittmatter, A. (2020). Heterogeneous employment effects of job search programmes: A machine learning approach. Journal of Human Resources, 0718-9615R1."},{"issue":"1","key":"4563_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1093\/ectj\/utaa014","volume":"24","author":"M Knaus","year":"2021","unstructured":"Knaus, M., Lechner, M., & Strittmatter, A. (2021). Machine learning estimation of heterogeneous causal effects: Empirical Monte Carlo evidence. The Econometrics Journal, 24(1), 134\u2013161.","journal-title":"The Econometrics Journal"},{"key":"4563_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1521","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-2921(01)00201-X","volume":"46","author":"K Konrad","year":"2002","unstructured":"Konrad, K. (2002). Investment in the absence of property rights; the role of incumbency advantages. European Economic Review, 46, 1521\u20131537.","journal-title":"European Economic Review"},{"issue":"1","key":"4563_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1111\/ecin.12465","volume":"56","author":"A Krumer","year":"2018","unstructured":"Krumer, A., & Lechner, M. (2018). Midweek effect on soccer performance: Evidence from the German Bundesliga. Economic Inquiry, 56(1), 193\u2013207.","journal-title":"Economic Inquiry"},{"issue":"2","key":"4563_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.90.2.410","volume":"90","author":"E Lazear","year":"2000","unstructured":"Lazear, E. (2000). The power of incentives. The American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings, 90(2), 410\u2013414.","journal-title":"The American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings"},{"key":"4563_CR38","unstructured":"Lechner, M. (2018). Modified causal forests for estimating heterogeneous causal effects. arXiv:1812.09487v2"},{"issue":"5865","key":"4563_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1153640","volume":"319","author":"S Levitt","year":"2008","unstructured":"Levitt, S., & List, J. (2008). Homo economicus evolves. Science, 319(5865), 909\u2013910.","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"5","key":"4563_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1080\/24748668.2017.1372162","volume":"17","author":"S Liebscher","year":"2017","unstructured":"Liebscher, S., & Kirschstein, T. (2017). Predicting the outcome of professional darts tournaments. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 17(5), 666\u2013683.","journal-title":"International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport"},{"issue":"3","key":"4563_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8295.1992.tb02446.x","volume":"83","author":"R Masters","year":"1992","unstructured":"Masters, R. (1992). Knowledge, knerves and know-how: The role of explicit versus implicit knowledge in the breakdown of a complex motor skill under pressure. British Journal of Psychology, 83(3), 343\u2013358.","journal-title":"British Journal of Psychology"},{"issue":"3","key":"4563_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022381608080699","volume":"70","author":"A Meirowitz","year":"2008","unstructured":"Meirowitz, A. (2008). Electoral contests, incumbency advantages, and campaign finance. Journal of Politics, 70(3), 681\u2013699.","journal-title":"Journal of Politics"},{"issue":"2","key":"4563_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1006\/drev.2000.0516","volume":"21","author":"J Musch","year":"2001","unstructured":"Musch, J., & Grondin, S. (2001). Unequal competition as an impediment to personal development: A review of the relative age effect in sport. Developmental Review, 21(2), 147\u2013167.","journal-title":"Developmental Review"},{"issue":"2","key":"4563_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/asaa076","volume":"108","author":"X Nie","year":"2021","unstructured":"Nie, X., & Wager, S. (2021). Quasi-oracle estimation of heterogeneous treatment effects. Biometrika, 108(2), 299\u2013319.","journal-title":"Biometrika"},{"key":"4563_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/0176-2680(94)90061-2","volume":"10","author":"S Nitzan","year":"1994","unstructured":"Nitzan, S. (1994). Modelling rent-seeking. European Journal of Political Economy, 10, 41\u201360.","journal-title":"European Journal of Political Economy"},{"issue":"2","key":"4563_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0228870","volume":"15","author":"M \u00d6tting","year":"2020","unstructured":"\u00d6tting, M., Deutscher, C., Schneemann, S., Langrock, R., Gehrmann, S., & Scholten, H. (2020). Performance under pressure in skill tasks: An analysis of professional darts. PLoS ONE, 15(2), 1\u201321.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"14","key":"4563_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1547","DOI":"10.1080\/02640410701275219","volume":"25","author":"L Page","year":"2007","unstructured":"Page, L., & Page, K. (2007). The second leg home advantage: Evidence from European football cup competitions. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25(14), 1547\u20131556.","journal-title":"Journal of Sports Sciences"},{"issue":"1","key":"4563_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1257\/jel.37.1.7","volume":"37","author":"C Prendergast","year":"1999","unstructured":"Prendergast, C. (1999). The provision of incentives in firms. Journal of Economic Literature, 37(1), 7\u201363.","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Literature"},{"issue":"427","key":"4563_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1994.10476818","volume":"89","author":"J Robins","year":"1994","unstructured":"Robins, J., Rotnitzky, A., & Zhao, L. (1994). Estimation of regression coefficients when some regressors are not always observed. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 89(427), 846\u2013866.","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"issue":"429","key":"4563_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1995.10476493","volume":"90","author":"J Robins","year":"1995","unstructured":"Robins, J., Rotnitzky, A., & Zhao, L. (1995). Analysis of semiparametric regression models for repeated outcomes in the presence of missing data. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 90(429), 106\u2013121.","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"issue":"4","key":"4563_CR51","first-page":"701","volume":"76","author":"S Rosen","year":"1986","unstructured":"Rosen, S. (1986). Prizes and incentives in elimination tournaments. The American Economic Review, 76(4), 701\u2013715.","journal-title":"The American Economic Review"},{"issue":"5","key":"4563_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1037\/h0037350","volume":"66","author":"D Rubin","year":"1974","unstructured":"Rubin, D. (1974). Estimating causal effects of treatments in randomized and nonrandomized studies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66(5), 688\u2013701.","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"issue":"4","key":"4563_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1007\/s00355-014-0816-9","volume":"43","author":"E Segev","year":"2014","unstructured":"Segev, E., & Sela, A. (2014). Sequential all-pay auctions with head starts. Social Choice and Welfare, 43(4), 893\u2013923.","journal-title":"Social Choice and Welfare"},{"issue":"2","key":"4563_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1093\/ectj\/utaa027","volume":"24","author":"V Semenova","year":"2021","unstructured":"Semenova, V., & Chernozhukov, V. (2021). Debiased machine learning of conditional average treatment effects and other causal functions. The Econometrics Journal, 24(2), 264\u2013289.","journal-title":"The Econometrics Journal"},{"issue":"3","key":"4563_CR55","first-page":"433","volume":"74","author":"C Shapiro","year":"1984","unstructured":"Shapiro, C., & Stiglitz, J. (1984). Equilibrium unemployment as a worker discipline device. The American Economic Review, 74(3), 433\u2013444.","journal-title":"The American Economic Review"},{"issue":"2","key":"4563_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.oep.a041340","volume":"28","author":"J Stiglitz","year":"1976","unstructured":"Stiglitz, J. (1976). The efficiency wage hypothesis, surplus labour, and the distribution of income in LDCs. Oxford Economic Papers, 28(2), 185\u2013207.","journal-title":"Oxford Economic Papers"},{"issue":"4","key":"4563_CR57","first-page":"636","volume":"44","author":"B Strauss","year":"1997","unstructured":"Strauss, B. (1997). Choking under pressure: Positive public expectations and performance in a motor task. Zeitschrift F\u00fcr Experimentelle Psychologie, 44(4), 636\u2013655.","journal-title":"Zeitschrift F\u00fcr Experimentelle Psychologie"},{"key":"4563_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.1257\/jel.41.4.1137","volume":"XLI","author":"S Szymanski","year":"2003","unstructured":"Szymanski, S. (2003). The economic design of sporting contests. Journal of Economic Literature, XLI, 1137\u20131187.","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Literature"},{"issue":"508","key":"4563_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1517","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.2014.951443","volume":"109","author":"L Tian","year":"2014","unstructured":"Tian, L., Alizadeh, A., Gentles, A., & Tibshirani, R. (2014). A simple method for estimating interactions between a treatment and a large number of covariates. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 109(508), 1517\u20131532.","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"issue":"1","key":"4563_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-985X.2010.00651.x","volume":"174","author":"R Tibshirani","year":"2011","unstructured":"Tibshirani, R., Price, A., & Taylor, J. (2011). A statistician plays darts. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series a: Statistics in Society, 174(1), 213\u2013226.","journal-title":"Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series a: Statistics in Society"},{"issue":"6","key":"4563_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1177\/1527002515593779","volume":"18","author":"M Toma","year":"2017","unstructured":"Toma, M. (2017). Missed shots at the free-throw line: Analyzing the determinants of choking under pressure. Journal of Sports Economics, 18(6), 539\u2013559.","journal-title":"Journal of Sports Economics"},{"key":"4563_CR62","first-page":"97","volume-title":"Toward a theory of the rent-seeking society","author":"G Tullock","year":"1980","unstructured":"Tullock, G. (1980). Efficient rent-seeking. In J. M. Buchanan, R. D. Tollison, & G. Tullock (Eds.), Toward a theory of the rent-seeking society (pp. 97\u2013112). Texas A&M University Press."},{"issue":"523","key":"4563_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1228","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.2017.1319839","volume":"113","author":"S Wager","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wager, S., & Athey, S. (2018). Estimation and inference of heterogeneous treatment effects using random forests. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 113(523), 1228\u20131242.","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"key":"4563_CR64","unstructured":"Wager, S., & Walther, G. (2015). Adaptive concentration of regression trees, with application to random forests. arXiv:1503.06388"},{"issue":"1","key":"4563_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejor.2013.03.043","volume":"232","author":"M Wright","year":"2014","unstructured":"Wright, M. (2014). OR analysis of sporting rules\u2014A survey. European Journal of Operational Research, 232(1), 1\u20138.","journal-title":"European Journal of Operational Research"},{"issue":"3681","key":"4563_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1126\/science.149.3681.269","volume":"149","author":"R Zajonc","year":"1965","unstructured":"Zajonc, R. (1965). Social facilitation. Science, 149(3681), 269\u2013274.","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"4563_CR67","unstructured":"Zimmert, M., & Lechner, M. (2019). Nonparametric estimation of causal heterogeneity under high-dimensional confounding. arXiv:1908.08779"}],"container-title":["Annals of Operations Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10479-022-04563-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10479-022-04563-0\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10479-022-04563-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,1]],"date-time":"2023-06-01T17:13:36Z","timestamp":1685639616000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s10479-022-04563-0"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,16]]},"references-count":67,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["4563"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10479-022-04563-0","relation":{},"ISSN":["0254-5330","1572-9338"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0254-5330","type":"print"},{"value":"1572-9338","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,16]]},"assertion":[{"value":"27 October 2021","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 February 2022","order":2,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The author declared that they have no conflict of interest.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}]}}