{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T05:15:57Z","timestamp":1788153357883,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782864000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782864000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"funder":[{"name":"Liaoning Provincial Science and Technology Plan Joint Program Project","award":["2025-MSLH-112"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025-MSLH-112"]}]},{"name":"Liaoning Provincial Science and Technology Plan Joint Program Project","award":["2025-MSLH-323"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025-MSLH-323"]}]},{"name":"Liaoning Provincial Science and Technology Plan Joint Program Project","award":["2025-MSLH-306"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025-MSLH-306"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Appl Intell"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s10489-026-07390-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T08:04:53Z","timestamp":1785312293000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["BinEncoder: Binary code similarity detection across compilation configurations via microcode"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"56","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4214-8164","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zheng","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tianhao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qian","family":"Mao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qi","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiangyang","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoya","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"7390_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ahn S, Ahn S, Koo H et\u00a0al (2022) Practical binary code similarity detection with bert-based transferable similarity learning. In: Annu comput secur appl conf association for computing machinery, New York, NY, USA, ACSAC \u201922, pp 361\u2013374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3564625.3567975","DOI":"10.1145\/3564625.3567975"},{"key":"7390_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118652","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2025.3582875","volume":"13","author":"M Alshoulie","year":"2025","unstructured":"Alshoulie M, Mehmood A (2025) Deep learning approaches for malware detection: a comprehensive review of techniques, challenges, and future directions. IEEE Access 13:118652\u2013118677. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACCESS.2025.3582875","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"7390_CR3","unstructured":"Binary Ninja (2024) Binary ninja. https:\/\/binary.ninja\/"},{"key":"7390_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Devlin J, Chang MW, Lee K et\u00a0al (2019) BERT: pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. In: Conf n am chapter assoc comput linguist association for computational linguistics, Minneapolis, Minnesota, pp 4171\u20134186. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/N19-1423","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/N19-1423"},{"key":"7390_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ding SHH, Fung BCM, Charland P (2019) Asm2vec: boosting static representation robustness for binary clone search against code obfuscation and compiler optimization. In: IEEE symp secur priv, pp 472\u2013489. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/SP.2019.00003","DOI":"10.1109\/SP.2019.00003"},{"key":"7390_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng Q, Zhou R, Xu C et\u00a0al (2016) Scalable graph-based bug search for firmware images. In: ACM SIGSAC conf comput commun secur association for computing machinery, New York, NY, USA, CCS \u201916, pp 480\u2013491. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2976749.2978370","DOI":"10.1145\/2976749.2978370"},{"key":"7390_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gao J, Yang X, Fu Y et\u00a0al (2018) Vulseeker: a semantic learning based vulnerability seeker for cross-platform binary. In: ACM\/IEEE Int Conf Autom Softw Eng, pp 896\u2013899. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3238147.3240480","DOI":"10.1145\/3238147.3240480"},{"key":"7390_CR8","unstructured":"Ghidra (2024) Ghidra software reverse engineering framework. https:\/\/github.com\/NationalSecurityAgency\/ghidra"},{"key":"7390_CR9","unstructured":"GNU (2024) Gnu packages. https:\/\/ftp.gnu.org\/gnu\/"},{"key":"7390_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103508","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2023.103508","volume":"135","author":"Y Gu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Gu Y, Shu H, Kang F (2023) Binaiv: semantic-enhanced vulnerability detection for linux x86 binaries. Comput Secur 135:103508. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cose.2023.103508","journal-title":"Comput Secur"},{"key":"7390_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2025.129646","volume":"630","author":"Y Gu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Gu Y, Shu H, Kang F et al (2025) Uniasm: binary code similarity detection without fine-tuning. Neurocomputing 630:129646. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neucom.2025.129646","journal-title":"Neurocomputing"},{"key":"7390_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"He H, Lin X, Weng Z et\u00a0al (2024a) Code is not natural language: Unlock the power of Semantics-Oriented graph representation for binary code similarity detection. In: USENIX secur symp USENIX association, Philadelphia, PA, pp 1759\u20131776. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5555\/3698900.3698999","DOI":"10.5555\/3698900.3698999"},{"key":"7390_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10233","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2024.3484944","volume":"19","author":"K He","year":"2024","unstructured":"He K, Hu Y, Li X et al (2024) Strtune: data dependence-based code slicing for binary similarity detection with fine-tuned representation. IEEE Trans Inf Forensics Secur 19:10233\u201310245. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TIFS.2024.3484944","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Inf Forensics Secur"},{"key":"7390_CR14","unstructured":"Hex-Rays (2021) Hex rays - state-of-the-art binary code analysis solutions. https:\/\/hex-rays.com\/ida-pro"},{"key":"7390_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Jia A, Fan M, Xu X et\u00a0al (2024) Cross-inlining binary function similarity detection. In: IEEE\/ACM int conf softw eng, pp 1\u201313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3597503.3639080","DOI":"10.1145\/3597503.3639080"},{"issue":"4","key":"7390_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1661","DOI":"10.1109\/TSE.2022.3187689","volume":"49","author":"D Kim","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kim D, Kim E, Cha SK et al (2023) Revisiting binary code similarity analysis using interpretable feature engineering and lessons learned. IEEE Trans Softw Eng 49(4):1661\u20131682. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TSE.2022.3187689","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Softw Eng"},{"key":"7390_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kumar J et\u00a0al (2025) A deep learning approach for binary code similarity detection to detect vulnerabilities in firmware binaries. Int J Intell Eng Syst 18(1). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5815\/ijcnis.2025.03.05","DOI":"10.5815\/ijcnis.2025.03.05"},{"key":"7390_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lattner C, Adve V (2004) LLVM: a compilation framework for lifelong program analysis & transformation. In: Int symp code gener optim IEEE computer society, Palo Alto, California, USA, pp 75\u201386. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/CGO.2004.1281665","DOI":"10.1109\/CGO.2004.1281665"},{"key":"7390_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2023.103500","volume":"135","author":"M Li","year":"2023","unstructured":"Li M, Liu H, Jiang X et al (2023) Sense: an unsupervised semantic learning model for cross-platform vulnerability search. Comput Secur 135:103500. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cose.2023.103500","journal-title":"Comput Secur"},{"key":"7390_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li Q, Li B, Gao C et\u00a0al (2025) Empirical study of code large language models for binary security patch detection. arXiv preprint arXiv:2509.06052","DOI":"10.1145\/3822506"},{"key":"7390_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Li W, Lu J, Xiao R et\u00a0al (2024) Rcfg2vec: considering long-distance dependency for binary code similarity detection. In: ACM\/IEEE Int Conf Autom Softw Eng, pp 770\u2013782. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3691620.3695070","DOI":"10.1145\/3691620.3695070"},{"key":"7390_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Li X, Qu Y, Yin H (2021) Palmtree: learning an assembly language model for instruction embedding. In: Proc ACM conf comput commun secur association for computing machinery, New York, NY, USA, CCS \u201921, pp 3236\u20133251. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3460120.3484587","DOI":"10.1145\/3460120.3484587"},{"key":"7390_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102032","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2020.102032","volume":"99","author":"H Liang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Liang H, Xie Z, Chen Y et al (2020) Fit: inspect vulnerabilities in cross-architecture firmware by deep learning and bipartite matching. Comput Secur 99:102032. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cose.2020.102032","journal-title":"Comput Secur"},{"key":"7390_CR24","unstructured":"van der Maaten L, Hinton G (2008) Visualizing data using t-sne. J Mach Learn Res 9(86):2579\u20132605. http:\/\/jmlr.org\/papers\/v9\/vandermaaten08a.html"},{"key":"7390_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Massarelli L, Di\u00a0Luna GA, Petroni F et\u00a0al (2019) Safe: self-attentive function embeddings for binary similarity. In: Int conf detect intrus malware vuln assess (DIMVA), Springer, pp 309\u2013329. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-22038-9_15","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-22038-9_15"},{"key":"7390_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Mikolov T, Sutskever I, Chen K et\u00a0al (2013) Distributed representations of words and phrases and their compositionality. In: Adv neural inform process syst curran associates inc, Red Hook, NY, USA, NIPS\u201913, pp 3111\u20133119. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5555\/2999792.2999959","DOI":"10.5555\/2999792.2999959"},{"key":"7390_CR27","unstructured":"NSA (2025) Ghidra. https:\/\/ghidra-sre.org"},{"issue":"4","key":"7390_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2776","DOI":"10.1109\/TSE.2022.3231621","volume":"49","author":"K Pei","year":"2023","unstructured":"Pei K, Xuan Z, Yang J et al (2023) Learning approximate execution semantics from traces for binary function similarity. IEEE Trans Softw Eng 49(4):2776\u20132790. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TSE.2022.3231621","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Softw Eng"},{"issue":"4","key":"7390_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0319551","volume":"20","author":"M Sajid","year":"2025","unstructured":"Sajid M, Sanaullah M, Fuzail M et al (2025) Comparative analysis of text-based plagiarism detection techniques. PLoS ONE 20(4):e0319551. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0319551","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"7390_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Schroff F, Kalenichenko D, Philbin J (2015) Facenet: a unified embedding for face recognition and clustering. In: IEEE conf comput vis pattern recog, pp 815\u2013823. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/CVPR.2015.7298682","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2015.7298682"},{"key":"7390_CR31","unstructured":"Su J (2020) Simbert: integrating retrieval and generation into bert. Tech. rep.,https:\/\/github.com\/ZhuiyiTechnology\/simbert"},{"issue":"9","key":"7390_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3442","DOI":"10.1109\/TSE.2021.3093926","volume":"48","author":"S Ullah","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ullah S, Oh H (2022) Bindiffnn: learning distributed representation of assembly for robust binary diffing against semantic differences. IEEE Trans Softw Eng 48(9):3442\u20133466. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TSE.2021.3093926","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Softw Eng"},{"key":"7390_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Vaswani A, Shazeer N, Parmar N et\u00a0al (2017) Attention is all you need. In: Guyon I, Luxburg UV, Bengio S et\u00a0al (eds) Adv Neural Inform Process Syst. Curran Associates, Inc, vol\u00a030. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.1706.03762","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.1706.03762"},{"issue":"24","key":"7390_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51842","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2025.3579231","volume":"12","author":"B Wan","year":"2025","unstructured":"Wan B, Wang S, Wei Z et al (2025) Binary code similarity detection via llm-based source code conversion. IEEE Internet Things J 12(24):51842\u201351853. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/JIOT.2025.3579231","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J"},{"key":"7390_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wang H, Qu W, Katz G et\u00a0al (2022) jtrans: jump-aware transformer for binary code similarity detection. In: ACM SIGSOFT Int Symp Softw Test Anal, pp 1\u201313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3533767.3534367","DOI":"10.1145\/3533767.3534367"},{"key":"7390_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wang J, Sharp M, Wu C et\u00a0al (2023) Can a deep learning model for one architecture be used for others? Retargeted-architecture binary code analysis. In: USENIX Secur Symp, pp 7339\u20137356. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5555\/3620237.3620648","DOI":"10.5555\/3620237.3620648"},{"key":"7390_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2023.121835","volume":"238","author":"J Xing","year":"2024","unstructured":"Xing J, Luo S, Pan L et al (2024) Hge-bvhd: heterogeneous graph embedding scheme of complex structure functions for binary vulnerability homology discrimination. Expert Syst Appl 238:121835. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.eswa.2023.121835","journal-title":"Expert Syst Appl"},{"key":"7390_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Xu X, Liu C, Feng Q et\u00a0al (2017) Neural network-based graph embedding for cross-platform binary code similarity detection. In: ACM SIGSAC conf comput commun secur association for computing machinery, New York, NY, USA, CCS \u201917, pp 363\u2013376. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3133956.3134018","DOI":"10.1145\/3133956.3134018"},{"key":"7390_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Xu X, Feng S, Ye Y et\u00a0al (2023) Improving binary code similarity transformer models by semantics-driven instruction deemphasis. In: ACM SIGSOFT int symp softw test anal association for computing machinery, New York, NY, USA, ISSTA 2023, pp 1106\u20131118. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3597926.3598121","DOI":"10.1145\/3597926.3598121"},{"issue":"11","key":"7390_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1109\/TSE.2018.2827379","volume":"45","author":"Y Xue","year":"2019","unstructured":"Xue Y, Xu Z, Chandramohan M et al (2019) Accurate and scalable cross-architecture cross-os binary code search with emulation. IEEE Trans Softw Eng 45(11):1125\u20131149. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TSE.2018.2827379","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Softw Eng"},{"key":"7390_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Yang S, Cheng L, Zeng Y et\u00a0al (2021) Asteria: deep learning-based ast-encoding for cross-platform binary code similarity detection. In: IEEE\/IFIP int conf dependable syst netw, pp 224\u2013236. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/DSN48987.2021.00036","DOI":"10.1109\/DSN48987.2021.00036"},{"issue":"15","key":"7390_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11227-025-07895-3","volume":"81","author":"G Yu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Yu G, Huang W, Lyu J et al (2025) Crosssimemb: transformer-based embedding model for cross-compilation binary code similarity detection. J Supercomput 81(15):1\u201333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11227-025-07895-3","journal-title":"J Supercomput"},{"key":"7390_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Yu Z, Cao R, Tang Q et\u00a0al (2020) Order matters: semantic-aware neural networks for binary code similarity detection. In: AAAI Conf Artif Intell, pp 1145\u20131152. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1609\/aaai.v34i01.5466","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v34i01.5466"},{"key":"7390_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zhang F, Wu D, Liu P et\u00a0al (2014) Program logic based software plagiarism detection. In: IEEE Int Symp Softw Reliab Eng, pp 66\u201377. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ISSRE.2014.18","DOI":"10.1109\/ISSRE.2014.18"}],"container-title":["Applied Intelligence"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10489-026-07390-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10489-026-07390-z","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10489-026-07390-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T04:23:13Z","timestamp":1788150193000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s10489-026-07390-z"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["7390"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10489-026-07390-z","relation":{},"ISSN":["0924-669X","1573-7497"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0924-669X","type":"print"},{"value":"1573-7497","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"assertion":[{"value":"14 January 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"19 July 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"29 July 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing Interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The code used in this study is publicly available at\n                      \n                      .","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Code availability","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"368"}}