{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]],"date-time":"2025-12-25T07:26:11Z","timestamp":1766647571421,"version":"3.37.3"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,24]],"date-time":"2022-01-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1642982400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,24]],"date-time":"2022-01-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1642982400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006041","name":"Innovate UK","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["106158"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["106158"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006041","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/P009964\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/P009964\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Artif Intell Law"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Modelling that exploits visual elements and information visualisation are important areas that have contributed immensely to understanding and the computerisation advancements in many domains and yet remain unexplored for the benefit of the law and legal practice. This paper investigates the challenge of modelling and expressing structures and processes in legislation and the law by using visual modelling and information visualisation (InfoVis) to assist accessibility of legal knowledge, practice and knowledge formalisation as a basis for legal AI. The paper uses a subset of the well-defined Unified Modelling Language (UML) to visually express the structure and process of the legislation and the law to create visual flow diagrams called lawmaps, which form the basis of further formalisation. A lawmap development methodology is presented and evaluated by creating a set of lawmaps for the practice of conveyancing and the Landlords and Tenants Act 1954 of the United Kingdom. This paper is the first of a new breed of preliminary solutions capable of application across all aspects, from legislation to practice; and capable of accelerating development of legal AI.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10506-021-09298-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,24]],"date-time":"2022-01-24T13:11:09Z","timestamp":1643029869000},"page":"169-194","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Lawmaps: enabling legal AI development through visualisation of the implicit structure of legislation and lawyerly process"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"31","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2528-8050","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Scott","family":"McLachlan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Evangelia","family":"Kyrimi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Kudakwashe","family":"Dube","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Norman","family":"Fenton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Lisa C.","family":"Webley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"9298_CR1","first-page":"17","volume-title":"Property law","author":"R Abbey","year":"2019","unstructured":"Abbey R, Richards M (2019) Property law. Oxford University Press, UK, p 17"},{"key":"9298_CR2","first-page":"23","volume-title":"Logic for lawyers: a guide to clear legal thinking","author":"R Aldisert","year":"2001","unstructured":"Aldisert R (2001) Logic for lawyers: a guide to clear legal thinking, 3rd edn. National Institute for Trial Advocacy, p 23","edition":"3"},{"issue":"1","key":"9298_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.2307\/1190730","volume":"28","author":"L Allen","year":"1963","unstructured":"Allen L, Caldwell M (1963) Modern logic and judicial decision making: a sketch of one view. Law Contemp Probl 28(1):213\u2013270","journal-title":"Law Contemp Probl"},{"key":"9298_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-54994-7_16","author":"G Alves","year":"2020","unstructured":"Alves G, Dennis L, Fisher M (2020) Formalisation and implementation of road junction rules on autonomous vehicle modelling as an agent. Springer Nat. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-54994-7_16","journal-title":"Springer Nat"},{"key":"9298_CR5","first-page":"27","volume":"11","author":"SD Becerra","year":"2018","unstructured":"Becerra SD (2018) The rise of artificial intelligence in the legal field: where we are and where we are going. J Bus Entrepr L 11:27","journal-title":"J Bus Entrepr L"},{"issue":"4","key":"9298_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1008242417011","volume":"5","author":"T Bench-Capon","year":"1997","unstructured":"Bench-Capon T (1997) Argument in artificial intelligence and law. Artif Intell Law 5(4):249\u2013261","journal-title":"Artif Intell Law"},{"key":"9298_CR7","unstructured":"Boole G (1847) The mathematical analysis of logic: being an essay towards a calculus of deductive reasoning. Cambridge, London. Sourced from: https:\/\/www.gutenberg.org\/files\/36884\/36884-pdf.pdf"},{"key":"#cr-split#-9298_CR8.1","unstructured":"Brennan Jr, WJ (1985) In defense of dissents. Hastings LJ, 37, 427"},{"key":"#cr-split#-9298_CR8.2","unstructured":"and Bibas, S. (2006). Transparency and participation in criminal procedure. NYUL Rev. 81:911"},{"key":"9298_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chowdhury D, Hope KD, Arthur LC, Weinberger SM, Ronai C, Johnson JN, Snyder CS (2020) Telehealth for pediatric cardiology practitioners in the time of COVID-19. Pediatr Cardiol 41(6):1\u201311","DOI":"10.1007\/s00246-020-02411-1"},{"key":"9298_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.artmed.2016.01.002","volume":"67","author":"AC Constantinou","year":"2016","unstructured":"Constantinou AC, Fenton N, Marsh W, Radlinski L (2016) From complex questionnaire and interviewing data to intelligent Bayesian network models for medical decision support. Artif Intell Med 67:75\u201393","journal-title":"Artif Intell Med"},{"issue":"7","key":"9298_CR11","first-page":"1829","volume":"119","author":"A Deeks","year":"2019","unstructured":"Deeks A (2019) The judicial demand for explainable artificial intelligence. Columbia Law Rev 119(7):1829\u20131850","journal-title":"Columbia Law Rev"},{"issue":"2","key":"9298_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167205282152","volume":"32","author":"B Englich","year":"2006","unstructured":"Englich B, Mussweiler T, Strack F (2006) Playing dice with criminal sentences: the influence of irrelevant anchors on experts\u2019 judicial decision making. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 32(2):188\u2013200","journal-title":"Pers Soc Psychol Bull"},{"key":"9298_CR13","first-page":"301","volume":"287\u2013331","author":"JJ Fang","year":"2014","unstructured":"Fang JJ (2014) 12 confused men: using flowchart verdict sheets to mitigate inconsistent civil verdicts. Duke Law J 287\u2013331:301","journal-title":"Duke Law J"},{"issue":"1","key":"9298_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1111\/cogs.12004","volume":"37","author":"N Fenton","year":"2013","unstructured":"Fenton N, Neil M, Lagnado DA (2013) A general structure for legal arguments about evidence using Bayesian networks. Cogn Sci 37(1):61\u2013102","journal-title":"Cogn Sci"},{"key":"9298_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flynn A Hodgson J (2017) Access to justice and legal aid cuts: a mismatch of concepts in the contemporary Australian and British legal landscapes. Access Just Legal Aid: Compar Perspect Unmet Legal Needs 1\u201322","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.2976482"},{"issue":"12","key":"9298_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.3390\/biology9120441","volume":"9","author":"D Hazra","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hazra D, Byun YC (2020) SynSigGAN: Generative adversarial networks for synthetic biomedical signal generation. Biology 9(12):441","journal-title":"Biology"},{"key":"9298_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huron S (2014) Constructive Visualization: A token-based paradigm allowing to assemble dynamic visual representation for non-experts. Doctoral dissertation","DOI":"10.1145\/2598510.2598566"},{"key":"9298_CR18","unstructured":"James S (2007) Tax simplification is not a simple issue: The reasons for difficulty and a possible strategy. Discussion Papers in Management, University of Exeter, Number 07\/18. ISSN: 1472-2939"},{"issue":"3","key":"9298_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8500.00108","volume":"58","author":"P Johnson","year":"1999","unstructured":"Johnson P (1999) Electronic service delivery: achieving accuracy and consistency in complex transactions. Aust J Public Adm 58(3):66\u201371","journal-title":"Aust J Public Adm"},{"key":"9298_CR21","first-page":"119","volume":"118","author":"KL Koch","year":"2010","unstructured":"Koch KL (2010) What did I just do? Using student-created concept maps or flowcharts to add a reflective visual component to legal research assignments. Perspectives 118:119","journal-title":"Perspectives"},{"issue":"1","key":"9298_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.2307\/1190727","volume":"28","author":"F Kort","year":"1963","unstructured":"Kort F (1963) Simultaneous equations and Boolean algebra in the analysis of judicial decisions. Law Contemp Probl 28(1):143\u2013163","journal-title":"Law Contemp Probl"},{"key":"9298_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103495","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbi.2020.103495","volume":"108","author":"E Kyrimi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kyrimi E, Neves MR, McLachlan S, Neil M, Marsh W, Fenton N (2020) Medical idioms for clinical Bayesian network development. J Biomed Inf 108:103495","journal-title":"J Biomed Inf"},{"key":"9298_CR24","unstructured":"Lacock D (1964) The relevance of logic to law. MULL: Modern Uses of Logic in Law 5(2):13\u201323. http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/29760972. Accessed 14 July 2021"},{"key":"9298_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.53300\/001c.6070","volume":"26","author":"T Leiman","year":"2016","unstructured":"Leiman T (2016) Where are the graphics-communicating legal ideas effectively using images and symbols. Legal Educ Rev 26:47\u201368","journal-title":"Legal Educ Rev"},{"key":"9298_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470510520","volume-title":"Digital electronics principles, devices and applications","author":"AK Maini","year":"2007","unstructured":"Maini AK (2007) Digital electronics principles, devices and applications. Wiley, Chichester"},{"issue":"1","key":"9298_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1080\/1472586X.2011.548488","volume":"26","author":"L Manovich","year":"2011","unstructured":"Manovich L (2011) What is visualisation? Vis Stud 26(1):36\u201349","journal-title":"Vis Stud"},{"key":"9298_CR28","first-page":"163","volume":"73","author":"MJ McCloskey","year":"1998","unstructured":"McCloskey MJ (1998) Visualizing the law: methods for mapping the legal landscape and drawing analogies. Wash l Rev 73:163","journal-title":"Wash l Rev"},{"key":"9298_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"McLachlan S, Kyrimi E, Dube K, Fenton N (2019) Clinical caremap development: how can caremaps standardise care when they are not standardised? In: Proceedings of the 12th international joint conference on biomedical systems and technologies (BIOSTEC 2019), HEALTHINF, vol 5, pp 123\u2013134. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5220\/0007522601230134","DOI":"10.5220\/0007522601230134"},{"key":"9298_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/14738716211012608","author":"S McLachlan","year":"2020","unstructured":"McLachlan S, Webley L (2020) Visualisation of law and legal process: an opportunity missed. SAGE J Inf vis. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/14738716211012608","journal-title":"SAGE J Inf vis"},{"key":"9298_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McLachlan S, Kyrimi E, Daley B, Dube K, Marsden M, Finer S, Hitman G, Fenton N (2020b). Incorporating clinical decisions into standardised Caremaps (no. 2745). In: Accepted as a poster and presentation at the IEEE International Conference on Health Informatics (ICHI 2020). EasyChair Preprint. https:\/\/easychair.org\/publications\/preprint\/3mXc","DOI":"10.1109\/ICHI48887.2020.9374381"},{"key":"9298_CR32","unstructured":"McLachlan S, Kyrimi E, Fenton N (2020) Public authorities as defendants: using Bayesian networks to determine the likelihood of success for negligence claims in the wake of Oakden. arXiv:2002.05664"},{"key":"9298_CR33","unstructured":"McLachlan S (2020) Health information standardisation as a basis for learning health systems. arXiv:2004.04811"},{"key":"9298_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"McLachlan S, Paterson H, Dube K, Kyrimi E, Dementiev E, Neil M, Daley B, Hitman GA, Fenton N (2020c) Real-time online probabilistic medical computation using Bayesian networks (no. 2744). In: Proceedings of the IEEE international conference on health informatics (ICHI 2020). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ICHI48887.2020.9374378","DOI":"10.1109\/ICHI48887.2020.9374378"},{"key":"9298_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mulvenna M. D., & Hughes, J. G. (1995, November). Compliance with complex agricultural policy: the Premia Management Plan system. In Proceedings 1995 2nd New Zealand international two-stream conference on artificial neural networks and expert systems. IEEE, pp. 381\u2013384","DOI":"10.1109\/ANNES.1995.499513"},{"key":"9298_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olsen HP, Slosser JL, Hildebrandt TT, Wiesener C (2019) What's in the Box? The legal requirement of explainability in computationally aided decision-making in public administration. SSRN: SocialScience Research Network. iCourts Working Paper Series, No 162","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3402974"},{"key":"9298_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1007\/s10506-017-9210-0","volume":"25","author":"H Prakken","year":"2017","unstructured":"Prakken H (2017) On the problem of making autonomous vehicles conform to traffic law. Artif Intell Law 25:341\u2013363","journal-title":"Artif Intell Law"},{"issue":"1","key":"9298_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1017\/S0269888907001051","volume":"22","author":"C Reed","year":"2007","unstructured":"Reed C, Walton D, Macagno F (2007) Argument diagramming in logic, law and artificial intelligence. Knowl Eng Rev 22(1):87\u2013110","journal-title":"Knowl Eng Rev"},{"key":"9298_CR39","first-page":"531","volume":"62","author":"DL Rhode","year":"2012","unstructured":"Rhode DL (2012) Access to justice: an agenda for legal education and research. J Legal Educ 62:531","journal-title":"J Legal Educ"},{"issue":"8","key":"9298_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1957","DOI":"10.2307\/796679","volume":"99","author":"EL Rissland","year":"1990","unstructured":"Rissland EL (1990) Artificial intelligence and law: stepping stones to a model of legal reasoning. Yale Law J 99(8):1957\u20131981","journal-title":"Yale Law J"},{"key":"9298_CR42","first-page":"2105","volume":"52","author":"L Sudeall","year":"2018","unstructured":"Sudeall L, Richardson R (2018) Unfamiliar justice: indigent criminal defendants\u2019 experiences with civil legal needs. UCDL Rev 52:2105","journal-title":"UCDL Rev"},{"issue":"1","key":"9298_CR43","first-page":"199","volume":"36","author":"AA Tarr","year":"2004","unstructured":"Tarr AA (2004) Legal education in global context. Univ Toledo Law Rev 36(1):199\u2013206","journal-title":"Univ Toledo Law Rev"},{"key":"9298_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/9781139051774","volume-title":"Incomprehensible!: a study of how our legal system encourages incomprehensibility, why it matters, and what we can do about it","author":"W Wagner","year":"2019","unstructured":"Wagner W, Walker W (2019) Incomprehensible!: a study of how our legal system encourages incomprehensibility, why it matters, and what we can do about it. Cambridge University Press"},{"key":"9298_CR45","unstructured":"Walton D, Gordon TF (2005) Critical questions in computational models of legal argument. Argum Artif Intell Law 103\u2013111"},{"key":"9298_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu H (2020) Use of EHR data for research: future. In: Statistics and machine learning methods for EHR data. Chapman and Hall\/CRC, pp 295\u2013301","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003030003-11"},{"issue":"1","key":"9298_CR47","first-page":"2","volume":"19","author":"R Yu","year":"2019","unstructured":"Yu R, Al\u00ec GS (2019) What\u2019s inside the black box? AI challenges for lawyers and researchers. Leg Inf Manag 19(1):2\u201313","journal-title":"Leg Inf Manag"}],"container-title":["Artificial Intelligence and Law"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10506-021-09298-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10506-021-09298-0\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10506-021-09298-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,16]],"date-time":"2024-09-16T20:04:09Z","timestamp":1726517049000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s10506-021-09298-0"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,24]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["9298"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10506-021-09298-0","relation":{},"ISSN":["0924-8463","1572-8382"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"0924-8463"},{"type":"electronic","value":"1572-8382"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,24]]},"assertion":[{"value":"25 July 2021","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"24 January 2022","order":2,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}}]}}