{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]],"date-time":"2026-02-26T15:26:27Z","timestamp":1772119587597,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":89,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,26]],"date-time":"2024-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1724630400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,26]],"date-time":"2024-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1724630400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Educ Inf Technol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>In the rapidly evolving landscape of higher education and adult learning, asynchronous video-based online learning has not only become the new norm but has also emerged as the cornerstone of instructional delivery for Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). Despite its widespread adoption, this learning mode confronts a critical challenge: the inherent lack of social presence, posing a significant risk of diminishing learner affective engagement and, consequently, jeopardizing the efficacy of learning outcomes. Addressing this pressing issue, our study conducted a comprehensive analysis of 240 instructional videos from 240 distinct instructors on a MOOC platform, supplemented by 845 post-course learner feedback surveys from a diverse cohort of college students and adult learners. Using deep learning and statistical analysis, the research revealed that the on-screen presence of instructors does not inherently affect students\u2019 affective engagement. The study revealed that learners\u2019 affective engagement is affected by distinct combinations of the instructor\u2019s facial and paraverbal expressions, including happiness, surprise, and anger, which vary depending on whether the instructor is visible. The discovery that vocal attractiveness is a pivotal element in enhancing learners\u2019 affective engagement with instructional videos marks a paradigm shift in our understanding of digital andragogy and heutagogy. This study propels academic discourse by illuminating the critical role of instructor non-verbal cues in establishing social presence and facilitating emotional contagion within asynchronous video-based online learning but also provides educators and content creators with empirically-backed techniques to revolutionize video instruction and amplify affective engagement.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-12956-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,26]],"date-time":"2024-08-26T08:02:15Z","timestamp":1724659335000},"page":"4033-4060","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Enhancing learner affective engagement: The impact of instructor emotional expressions and vocal charisma in asynchronous video-based online learning"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"30","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6796-2031","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hung-Yue","family":"Suen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Kuo-En","family":"Hung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"12956_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-006-9033-0","volume":"18","author":"M Ainley","year":"2006","unstructured":"Ainley, M. (2006). Connecting with Learning: Motivation, Affect and Cognition in Interest Processes. Educational Psychology Review, 18, 391\u2013405. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10648-006-9033-0","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"12956_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2017.00068","volume":"2","author":"K Akiha","year":"2018","unstructured":"Akiha, K., Brigham, E., Couch, B. A., Lewin, J., Stains, M., Stetzer, M. R., Vinson, E. L., & Smith, M. K. (2018). What Types of Instructional Shifts Do Students Experience? Investigating Active Learning in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math Classes across Key Transition Points from Middle School to the University Level. Frontiers in Education, 2, 68. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/feduc.2017.00068","journal-title":"Frontiers in Education"},{"key":"12956_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Akyol, Z., & Garrison, D. R. (2008). The development of a Community of Inquiry over time in an online course: Understanding the progression and integration of social, cognitive and teaching presence. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 12, 3\u201322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.24059\/olj.v12i3.72","DOI":"10.24059\/olj.v12i3.72"},{"key":"12956_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12713","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-022-11154-w","volume":"27","author":"E Alemdag","year":"2022","unstructured":"Alemdag, E. (2022). Effects of instructor-present videos on learning, cognitive load, motivation, and social presence: A meta-analysis. Education and Information Technologies, 27, 12713\u201312742. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10639-022-11154-w","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"key":"12956_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbusvent.2022.106193","volume":"37","author":"TH Allison","year":"2022","unstructured":"Allison, T. H., Warnick, B. J., Davis, B. C., & Cardon, M. S. (2022). Can you hear me now? Engendering passion and preparedness perceptions with vocal expressions in crowdfunding pitches. Journal of Business Venturing, 37, 106193. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jbusvent.2022.106193","journal-title":"Journal of Business Venturing"},{"key":"12956_CR6","unstructured":"Bambaeeroo, F., & Shokrpour, N. (2017). The impact of the teachers\u2019 non-verbal communication on success in teaching. Journal of Advances in Medical Education & Professionalism, 5, 51\u201359. https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/28367460\/"},{"key":"12956_CR7","unstructured":"Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc."},{"key":"12956_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bao, W., Li, Y., Gu, M., Yang, M., Li, H., Chao, L., & Tao, J. (2014). Building a Chinese Natural Emotional Audio-Visual Database. In 2014 12th International Conference on Signal Processing (ICSP) (pp. 583\u2013587). IEEE. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ICOSP.2014.7015071","DOI":"10.1109\/ICOSP.2014.7015071"},{"key":"12956_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5570870","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/5570870","volume":"2021","author":"YK Bhatti","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bhatti, Y. K., Jamil, A., Nida, N., Yousaf, M. H., Viriri, S., & Velastin, S. A. (2021). Facial Expression Recognition of Instructor Using Deep Features and Extreme Learning Machine. Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience, 2021, 5570870. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2021\/5570870","journal-title":"Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience"},{"issue":"4","key":"12956_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1080\/01587919.2018.1520041","volume":"39","author":"DU Bolliger","year":"2018","unstructured":"Bolliger, D. U., & Martin, F. (2018). Instructor and student perceptions of online student engagement strategies. Distance Education, 39(4), 568\u2013583. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/01587919.2018.1520041","journal-title":"Distance Education"},{"key":"12956_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iheduc.2011.11.001","volume":"15","author":"J Borup","year":"2012","unstructured":"Borup, J., West, R. E., & Graham, C. R. (2012). Improving online social presence through asynchronous video. Internet and Higher Education, 15, 195\u2013203. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.iheduc.2011.11.001","journal-title":"Internet and Higher Education"},{"key":"12956_CR12","unstructured":"Buckley, S., Hasen, G., & Ainley, M. (2004). Affective engagement: A person-centred approach to understanding the structure of subjective learning experiences. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Australian Association for Research in Education, Melbourne, Australia. https:\/\/works.bepress.com\/sarah_buckley\/17\/. Accessed 2023"},{"key":"12956_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Cavanagh, M., Bower, M., Moloney, R., & Sweller, N. (2014). The effect over time of a video-based reflection system on preservice teachers\u2019 oral presentations. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 39(6), Article 1. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.14221\/ajte.2014v39n6.3","DOI":"10.14221\/ajte.2014v39n6.3"},{"key":"12956_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1007\/s42438-022-00288-2","volume":"4","author":"YW Chew","year":"2022","unstructured":"Chew, Y. W. (2022). Performing presence with the teaching-body via videoconferencing: a postdigital study of the teacher\u2019s face and voice. Postdigital Science and Education, 4, 394\u2013442. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s42438-022-00288-2","journal-title":"Postdigital Science and Education"},{"key":"12956_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1080\/15391523.2021.1891998","volume":"54","author":"TKF Chiu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Chiu, T. K. F. (2022). Applying the self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student engagement in online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 54, 14\u201330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/15391523.2021.1891998","journal-title":"Journal of Research on Technology in Education"},{"key":"12956_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Collins, K., Groff, S., Mathena, C., & Kupczynski, L. (2019). Asynchronous video and the development of instructor social presence and student engagement. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 20(1), 53\u201370. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17718\/tojde.522378","DOI":"10.17718\/tojde.522378"},{"key":"12956_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Daher, W., Sabbah, K., & Abuzant, M. (2021). Affective engagement of higher education students in an online course. Emerging Science Journal, 5, 545\u2013558. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.28991\/esj-2021-01296","DOI":"10.28991\/esj-2021-01296"},{"key":"12956_CR18","unstructured":"Dixson, M. D. (2010). Creating effective student engagement in online courses: What do students find engaging? Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10, 1\u201313. https:\/\/scholarworks.iu.edu\/journals\/index.php\/josotl\/article\/view\/1744"},{"key":"12956_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1935","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-022-11269-0","volume":"28","author":"B Du","year":"2023","unstructured":"Du, B. (2023). Research on the factors influencing the learner satisfaction of MOOCs. Education and Information Technologies, 28, 1935\u20131955. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10639-022-11269-0","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"key":"12956_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3623","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-021-10755-1","volume":"27","author":"T Duan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Duan, T. (2022). A new idea for the optimization of MOOC-based teaching. Education and Information Technologies, 27, 3623\u20133650. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10639-021-10755-1","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"key":"12956_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.99.3.550","volume":"99","author":"P Ekman","year":"1992","unstructured":"Ekman, P. (1992). Are there basic emotions? Psychology Review, 99, 550\u2013553. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-295X.99.3.550","journal-title":"Psychology Review"},{"key":"12956_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.115.2.268","volume":"115","author":"P Ekman","year":"1994","unstructured":"Ekman, P. (1994). Strong evidence for universals in facial expressions: A reply to Russell\u2019s mistaken critique. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 268\u2013287. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-2909.115.2.268","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"12956_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2017.12.013","volume":"19","author":"MS Fanselow","year":"2018","unstructured":"Fanselow, M. S. (2018). Emotion, motivation and function. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 19, 105\u2013109. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cobeha.2017.12.013","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences"},{"issue":"1","key":"12956_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.3102\/00346543074001059","volume":"74","author":"JA Fredricks","year":"2004","unstructured":"Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59\u2013109. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3102\/00346543074001059","journal-title":"Review of Educational Research"},{"key":"12956_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Garcia, M., & Yousef, A. (2023). Cognitive and affective effects of teachers\u2019 annotations and talking heads on asynchronous video lectures in a web development course. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 18(20), 1\u201323. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.58459\/rptel.2023.18020.","DOI":"10.58459\/rptel.2023.18020"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"12956_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-6393(02)00082-1","volume":"40","author":"C Gobl","year":"2003","unstructured":"Gobl, C., & Chasaide, A. N. (2003). The role of voice quality in communicating emotion, mood and attitude. Speech Communication, 40(1\u20132), 189\u2013212. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0167-6393(02)00082-1","journal-title":"Speech Communication"},{"key":"12956_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Goodfellow, I. J., Erhan, D., Carrier, P. L., Courville, A., Mirza, M., Hamner, B., Cukierski, W., Tang, Y., Thaler, D., Lee, D.-H., Zhou, Y., Ramaiah, C., Feng, F., Li, R., Wang, X., Athanasakis, D., Shawe-Taylor, J., Milakov, M., Park, J., ... Bengio, Y. (2013). Challenges in representation learning: a report on three machine learning contests. In M. Lee, A. Hirose, Z.-G. Hou, & R. M. Kil (Eds.), Neural Information Processing. ICONIP 2013. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Vol. 8228, pp. 117\u2013124). Springer. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-642-42051-1_16","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-42051-1_16"},{"key":"12956_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gunes, H., Schuller, B., Pantic, M., & Cowie, R. (2011). Emotion representation, analysis, and synthesis in continuous space: A survey. In Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face & Gesture Recognition (FG) (pp. 827\u2013834). Santa Barbara, CA, USA. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/FG.2011.5771357","DOI":"10.1109\/FG.2011.5771357"},{"key":"12956_CR29","unstructured":"Hahow. (n.d.). Hahow. https:\/\/hahow.in\/. Accessed 2023"},{"key":"12956_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8721.ep10770953","volume":"2","author":"E Hatfield","year":"1993","unstructured":"Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1993). Emotional contagion. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 96\u2013100. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1467-8721.ep10770953","journal-title":"Current Directions in Psychological Science"},{"key":"12956_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeo.2021.100059","volume":"2","author":"ML Henderson","year":"2021","unstructured":"Henderson, M. L., & Schroeder, N. L. (2021). A Systematic review of instructor presence in instructional videos: Effects on learning and affect. Computers and Education Open, 2, 100059. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.caeo.2021.100059","journal-title":"Computers and Education Open"},{"key":"12956_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2015.09.005","volume":"90","author":"CR Henrie","year":"2015","unstructured":"Henrie, C. R., Halverson, L. R., & Graham, C. R. (2015). Measuring student engagement in technology-mediated learning: A review. Computers & Education, 90, 36\u201353. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2015.09.005","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"key":"12956_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Bond, A. (2020). The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. Educause Review. https:\/\/er.educause.edu\/articles\/2020\/3\/the-difference-between-emergency-remote-teaching-and-online-learning. Accessed 2023","DOI":"10.1163\/9789004702813_021"},{"key":"12956_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1080\/01463373.2012.669323","volume":"60","author":"SM Horan","year":"2012","unstructured":"Horan, S. M., Martin, M. M., & Weber, K. (2012). Understanding Emotional Response Theory: The Role of Instructor Power and Justice Messages. Communication Quarterly, 60, 210\u2013233. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/01463373.2012.669323","journal-title":"Communication Quarterly"},{"key":"12956_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1177\/0020720918773975","volume":"55","author":"O Iskrenovic-Momcilovic","year":"2018","unstructured":"Iskrenovic-Momcilovic, O. (2018). Learning a programming language. International Journal of Electrical Engineering Education, 55, 324\u2013333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0020720918773975","journal-title":"International Journal of Electrical Engineering Education"},{"key":"12956_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6781","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-022-11470-1","volume":"28","author":"O Jabali","year":"2023","unstructured":"Jabali, O., Saeedi, M., Rabayaa, M., & Othman, N. (2023). Zoom dysmorphia in e-teaching: Shifting the value from attributes to appearance. Education and Information Technologies, 28, 6781\u20136799. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10639-022-11470-1","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"key":"12956_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.129.5.770","volume":"129","author":"PN Juslin","year":"2003","unstructured":"Juslin, P. N., & Laukka, P. (2003). Communication of emotion in vocal expression and music performance: Different channels, same code? Psychological Bulletin, 129, 770\u2013814. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-2909.129.5.770","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"12956_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1080\/13540602.2020.1834380","volume":"27","author":"MK Keller","year":"2021","unstructured":"Keller, M. K., & Eva, S. B. (2021). Teachers\u2019 emotions and emotional authenticity: Do they matter to students\u2019 emotional responses in the classroom? Teachers and Teaching, 27, 404\u2013422. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13540602.2020.1834380","journal-title":"Teachers and Teaching"},{"key":"12956_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1037\/edu0000013","volume":"107","author":"RF Kizilcec","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kizilcec, R. F., Bailenson, J. N., & Gomez, C. J. (2015). The instructor\u2019s face in video instruction: Evidence from two large-scale field studies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107, 724\u2013739. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/edu0000013","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"12956_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1037\/amp0000147","volume":"72","author":"MW Kraus","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kraus, M. W. (2017). Voice-only communication enhances empathic accuracy. American Psychologist, 72, 644\u2013654. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/amp0000147","journal-title":"American Psychologist"},{"key":"12956_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Laukka, P. (2017). Vocal communication of emotion. In: V. Zeigler-Hill & T. Shackelford (eds) Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences. Springer, Cham. Retrieved from https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-28099-8_562-1","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-28099-8_562-1"},{"key":"12956_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2021.10.035","volume":"32","author":"M Liu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Liu, M., Duan, Y., Ince, R. A. A., Chen, C., Garrod, O. G. B., Schyns, P. G., & Jack, R. E. (2022). Facial expressions elicit multiplexed perceptions of emotion categories and dimensions. Current Biology, 32, 200\u2013209. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cub.2021.10.035","journal-title":"Current Biology"},{"key":"12956_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1177\/1094670519835309","volume":"22","author":"X-Y Liu","year":"2019","unstructured":"Liu, X.-Y., Chi, N.-W., & Gremler, D. D. (2019). Emotion Cycles in Services: Emotional Contagion and Emotional Labor Effects. Journal of Service Research, 22, 285\u2013300. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1094670519835309","journal-title":"Journal of Service Research"},{"key":"12956_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1038\/s41928-020-00534-0","volume":"4","author":"BB Lockee","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lockee, B. B. (2021). Online education in the post-COVID era. Nature Electronic, 4, 5\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41928-020-00534-0","journal-title":"Nature Electronic"},{"key":"12956_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Martin, F., & Bolliger, D. U. (2018). Engagement Matters: Student Perceptions on the Importance of Engagement Strategies in the Online Learning Environment. Online Learning, 22, 205\u2013222. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.24059\/olj.v22i1.1092","DOI":"10.24059\/olj.v22i1.1092"},{"key":"12956_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2020.104009","volume":"159","author":"F Martin","year":"2020","unstructured":"Martin, F., Sung, T., & Westine, C. D. (2020a). A systematic review of research on online teaching and learning from 2009 to 2018. Computers & Education., 159, 104009. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2020.104009","journal-title":"Computers & Education."},{"key":"12956_CR47","unstructured":"Martin, F., Drew, P., Ritzhaupt, A. D. (2020b). Synchronous online learning: Blending asynchronous and synchronous online learning. Educause Review. https:\/\/er.educause.edu\/articles\/2020\/9\/bichronous-online-learning-blending-asynchronous-and-synchronous-online-learning. Accessed 2023"},{"key":"12956_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Mayer, R. E. (Ed.). (2014). The Cambridge handbook of Multimedia Learning (2nd, rev. ed.). Cambridge University Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/CBO9781139547369.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139547369"},{"issue":"5","key":"12956_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3867","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-021-10769-9","volume":"27","author":"N Mejbri","year":"2022","unstructured":"Mejbri, N., Essalmi, F., Jemni, M., & Alyoubi, B. A. (2022). Trends in the use of affective computing in e-learning environments. Education and Information Technologies, 27(5), 3867\u20133889. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10639-021-10769-9","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"key":"12956_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-021-10801-y","volume":"12","author":"K Mershad","year":"2022","unstructured":"Mershad, K., & Said, B. (2022). DIAMOND: A tool for monitoring the participation of students in online lectures. Education and Information Technologies, 12, 1\u201331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10639-021-10801-y","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"key":"12956_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315189864","author":"TP Mottet","year":"2006","unstructured":"Mottet, T. P., Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (2006). Handbook of instructional communication: Rhetorical and relational perspectives. Allyn & Bacon. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9781315189864","journal-title":"Allyn & Bacon"},{"key":"12956_CR52","unstructured":"Narciss, S. (2008). Feedback strategies for interactive learning tasks. In Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp. 125\u2013144). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates."},{"issue":"1","key":"12956_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1109\/TAFFC.2019.2946540","volume":"13","author":"H-D Nguyen","year":"2022","unstructured":"Nguyen, H.-D., Kim, S.-H., Lee, G.-S., Yang, H.-J., Na, I.-S., & Kim, S.-H. (2022). Facial Expression Recognition Using a Temporal Ensemble of Multi-Level Convolutional Neural Networks. IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, 13(1), 226\u2013237. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TAFFC.2019.2946540","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing"},{"issue":"4","key":"12956_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.35.4.250","volume":"35","author":"RE Nisbett","year":"1977","unstructured":"Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977). The halo effect: Evidence for unconscious alteration of judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35(4), 250\u2013256. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.35.4.250","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"12956_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.170912","volume":"4","author":"H Nordstr\u00f6m","year":"2017","unstructured":"Nordstr\u00f6m, H., Laukka, P., Thingujam, N., Schubert, E., & Elfenbein, H. (2017). Emotion appraisal dimensions inferred from vocal expressions are consistent across cultures: A comparison between Australia and India. Royal Society Open Science, 4, 170912. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rsos.170912","journal-title":"Royal Society Open Science"},{"issue":"1","key":"12956_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1037\/emo0000636","volume":"20","author":"Y Nozaki","year":"2020","unstructured":"Nozaki, Y., & Mikolajczak, M. (2020). Extrinsic emotion regulation. Emotion, 20(1), 10\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/emo0000636","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"12956_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2006","DOI":"10.1177\/0735633118823159","volume":"57","author":"\u015e\u00c7 \u00d6zhan","year":"2020","unstructured":"\u00d6zhan, \u015e\u00c7., & Kocadere, S. A. (2020). The effects of flow, emotional engagement, and motivation on success in a gamified online learning environment. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 57, 2006\u20132031. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0735633118823159","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Computing Research"},{"key":"12956_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Paivio, A. (1990). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. Oxford Psychology Series. Oxford Academic. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195066661.001.0001","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195066661.001.0001"},{"key":"12956_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Richardson, J. C., & Lowenthal, P. (2017). Instructor social presence: Learners\u2019 needs and a neglected component of the community of inquiry framework. In A. Whiteside, A. Garrett Dikkers, & K. Swan, (Eds.), Social presence in online learning: Multiple perspectives on practice and research (pp. 86\u201398). Stylus.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003447023-12"},{"key":"12956_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2012.11.003","volume":"62","author":"K Robinson","year":"2013","unstructured":"Robinson, K. (2013). The interrelationship of emotion and cognition when students undertake collaborative group work online: An interdisciplinary approach. Computers & Education, 62, 298\u2013307. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2012.11.003","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"issue":"6","key":"12956_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1037\/h0077714","volume":"39","author":"JA Russell","year":"1980","unstructured":"Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(6), 1161\u20131178. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/h0077714","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"12956_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.110.1.145","volume":"110","author":"JA Russell","year":"2003","unstructured":"Russell, J. A. (2003). Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion. Psychological Review, 110, 145\u2013172. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-295X.110.1.145","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"issue":"1","key":"12956_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.55.1.68","volume":"55","author":"RM Ryan","year":"2000","unstructured":"Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68\u201378. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0003-066X.55.1.68","journal-title":"American Psychologist"},{"key":"12956_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2251","DOI":"10.1080\/17470211003721642","volume":"63","author":"DA Sauter","year":"2010","unstructured":"Sauter, D. A., Eisner, F., Calder, A. J., & Scott, S. K. (2010). Perceptual cues in nonverbal vocal expressions of emotion. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63, 2251\u20132272. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/17470211003721642","journal-title":"The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology"},{"key":"12956_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.877530","volume":"13","author":"J Shang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Shang, J., & Liu, Z. (2022). Vocal attractiveness matters: Social preferences in cooperative behavior. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 877530. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.877530","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"key":"12956_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Short, J., Williams, E., & Christie, B. (1976). The social psychology of telecommunications. John Wiley & Sons. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/009365028000700307","DOI":"10.1177\/009365028000700307"},{"key":"12956_CR67","unstructured":"Siegel, D. J. (2020). The developing mind: How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are (3rd ed.). Guilford Press. https:\/\/drdansiegel.com\/book\/the-developing-mind\/"},{"issue":"3","key":"12956_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327957PSPR0503_4","volume":"5","author":"PJ Silvia","year":"2001","unstructured":"Silvia, P. J., & Duval, T. S. (2001). Objective Self-Awareness Theory: Recent Progress and Enduring Problems. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(3), 230\u2013241. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1207\/S15327957PSPR0503_4","journal-title":"Personality and Social Psychology Review"},{"key":"12956_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"838","DOI":"10.1037\/a0017810","volume":"9","author":"ER Simon-Thomas","year":"2009","unstructured":"Simon-Thomas, E. R., Keltner, D. J., Sauter, D., Sinicropi-Yao, L., & Abramson, A. (2009). The voice conveys specific emotions: Evidence from vocal burst displays. Emotion, 9, 838\u2013846. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0017810","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"12956_CR70","unstructured":"Sohriani, E., Djafar, M. B., & Salija, K. (2018). Lecturer\u2019s facial expression in EFL classroom at the University of Cokroaminoto Palopo [Unpublished thesis]. Universitas Negeri Makassar. https:\/\/eprints.unm.ac.id\/id\/eprint\/11172. Accessed 2023"},{"issue":"2","key":"12956_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1207\/S15516709COG1202_4","volume":"12","author":"J Sweller","year":"1988","unstructured":"Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257\u2013285. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1207\/S15516709COG1202_4","journal-title":"Cognitive Science"},{"key":"12956_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1186\/2193-1801-2-455","volume":"11","author":"G Theonas","year":"2007","unstructured":"Theonas, G., Hobbs, D., & Rigas, D. (2007). The effect of facial expressions on students in virtual educational environments. International Journal of Educational and Pedagogical Sciences, 11, 625\u2013632. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/2193-1801-2-455","journal-title":"International Journal of Educational and Pedagogical Sciences"},{"key":"12956_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijer.2021.101861","volume":"109","author":"T T\u00f6rm\u00e4nen","year":"2021","unstructured":"T\u00f6rm\u00e4nen, T., J\u00e4rvenoja, H., & M\u00e4nty, K. (2021). All for one and one for all \u2013 How are students\u2019 affective states and group-level emotion regulation interconnected in collaborative learning? International Journal of Educational Research, 109, 101861. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijer.2021.101861","journal-title":"International Journal of Educational Research"},{"key":"12956_CR74","first-page":"1","volume":"13","author":"GL Trager","year":"1958","unstructured":"Trager, G. L. (1958). Paralanguage: A first approximation. Studies in Linguistics, 13, 1\u201312.","journal-title":"Studies in Linguistics"},{"key":"12956_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/nse2.20038","volume":"50","author":"KA Walker","year":"2021","unstructured":"Walker, K. A., & Koralesky, K. E. (2021). Student and instructor perceptions of engagement after the rapid online transition of teaching due to COVID-19. Natural Sciences Education, 50, e20038. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/nse2.20038","journal-title":"Natural Sciences Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"12956_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1177\/009365092019001003","volume":"19","author":"JB Walther","year":"1992","unstructured":"Walther, J. B. (1992). Interpersonal effects in computer-mediated interaction: A relational perspective. Communication Research, 19(1), 52\u201390. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/009365092019001003","journal-title":"Communication Research"},{"key":"12956_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2019.103779","volume":"146","author":"J Wang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wang, J., Antonenko, P., & Dawson, K. (2020). Does visual attention to the instructor in online video affect learning and learner perceptions? An Eye-Tracking Analysis. Computers & Education, 146, 103779. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2019.103779","journal-title":"An Eye-Tracking Analysis. Computers & Education"},{"key":"12956_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.799412","volume":"8","author":"J-Y Wang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wang, J.-Y., Yang, C.-H., Liao, W.-C., Yang, K.-C., Chang, I.-W., Sheu, B.-C., & Ni, Y.-H. (2022). Highly engaged video-watching pattern in asynchronous online pharmacology course in pre-clinical 4th-year medical students was associated with a good self-expectation, understanding, and performance. Frontiers in Medicine, 8, 799412. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmed.2021.799412","journal-title":"Frontiers in Medicine"},{"key":"12956_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.737310","volume":"12","author":"Y Wang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wang, Y. (2022). To Be Expressive or Not: The Role of Teachers\u2019 Emotions in Students\u2019 Learning. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 737310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.737310","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"key":"12956_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-023-12108-6","author":"Y Wang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wang, Y. (2023). The effectiveness of innovative technologies to manage vocal training: The knowledge of breathing physiology and conscious control in singing. Education and Information Technologies. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10639-023-12108-6","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"key":"12956_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1381","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.12633","volume":"50","author":"Y Wang","year":"2019","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Liu, Q., Chen, W., Wang, Q., & Stein, D. (2019). Effects of instructor\u2019s facial expressions on students\u2019 learning with video lectures. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50, 1381\u20131395. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/bjet.12633","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Technology"},{"issue":"1","key":"12956_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1007\/s10919-008-0057-7","volume":"33","author":"G Warren","year":"2009","unstructured":"Warren, G., Schertler, E., & Bull, P. (2009). Detecting deception from emotional and unemotional cues. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 33(1), 59\u201369. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10919-008-0057-7","journal-title":"Journal of Nonverbal Behavior"},{"key":"12956_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2017.11.038","volume":"89","author":"MV Wermeskerken","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wermeskerken, M. V., Ravensbergen, S., & Gog, T. V. (2018). Effects of instructor presence in video modeling examples on attention and learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 89, 430\u2013438. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chb.2017.11.038","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"key":"12956_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.2190\/V0LB-1M37-RNR8-Y2U1","volume":"31","author":"A Wise","year":"2004","unstructured":"Wise, A., Chang, J., Duffy, T., & Del Valle, R. (2004). The Effects of Teacher Social Presence On Student Satisfaction, Engagement, and Learning. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 31, 247\u2013271. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2190\/V0LB-1M37-RNR8-Y2U1","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Computing Research"},{"key":"12956_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ye, B., Yuan, X., Peng, G., & Zeng, W. (2022). A novel speech emotion model based on CNN and LSTM Networks. In 2022 6th Asian Conference on Artificial Intelligence Technology (ACAIT), 1\u20134. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACAIT56212.2022.10137926","DOI":"10.1109\/ACAIT56212.2022.10137926"},{"key":"12956_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.746857","volume":"12","author":"M Yuan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Yuan, M., Zeng, J., Wang, A., & Shang, J. (2021). Would It Be Better if Instructors Technically Adjust Their Image or Voice in Online Courses? Impact of the Way of Instructor Presence on Online Learning. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 746857. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.746857","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"key":"12956_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Yuyun, I. (2023). Investigating university student engagement in online learning: A case study in EFL classroom. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12(3). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17509\/ijal.v12i3.46035","DOI":"10.17509\/ijal.v12i3.46035"},{"key":"12956_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1080\/03634523.2013.828842","volume":"62","author":"Q Zhang","year":"2013","unstructured":"Zhang, Q., & Zhang, J. (2013). Instructors\u2019 Positive Emotions: Effects on Student Engagement and Critical Thinking in U.S. and Chinese Classrooms. Communication Education, 62, 395\u2013411. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/03634523.2013.828842","journal-title":"Communication Education"},{"key":"12956_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.807084","volume":"12","author":"H Zhao","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zhao, H., & Khan, A. (2022). The Students\u2019 Flow Experience With the Continuous Intention of Using Online English Platforms. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 807084. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.807084","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"}],"container-title":["Education and Information Technologies"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10639-024-12956-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10639-024-12956-w\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10639-024-12956-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,1]],"date-time":"2025-03-01T03:17:37Z","timestamp":1740799057000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s10639-024-12956-w"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,26]]},"references-count":89,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["12956"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10639-024-12956-w","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.31234\/osf.io\/r59wa_v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1360-2357","1573-7608"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1360-2357","type":"print"},{"value":"1573-7608","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,26]]},"assertion":[{"value":"10 November 2023","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"6 August 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"26 August 2024","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The author declares no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}]}}