{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]],"date-time":"2026-01-29T22:33:24Z","timestamp":1769726004044,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]],"date-time":"2025-01-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1738281600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]],"date-time":"2025-01-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1738281600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"funder":[{"name":"Excellent Graduate Training Program of Shaanxi Normal University","award":["LHRCTS23016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LHRCTS23016"]}]},{"name":"Hubei Province Education Science Planning Project","award":["2021JB251"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021JB251"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Educ Inf Technol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-025-13321-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]],"date-time":"2025-01-31T03:09:23Z","timestamp":1738292963000},"page":"14737-14759","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Learning effectiveness of virtual technologies in chemistry using a three-level meta-analysis"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"30","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-0554-1037","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qianwen","family":"Song","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-4315-3812","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Meng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Zhan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7071-7096","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qing","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"13321_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"*Ali, N., Ullah, S., & Raees, M. (2022). Interactive cube for effective demonstration of virtual periodic table. Education and Information Technologies, 27, 1635\u20131654. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10639-021-10691-0","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-021-10691-0"},{"key":"13321_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"*Amiati, A. (2019). The effect of virtual reality laboratory on conceptual understanding in electrolytes and non-electrolytes.\u00a0Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn),\u00a013(3), 362\u2013369. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.11591\/edulearn.v13i3.13572","DOI":"10.11591\/edulearn.v13i3.13572"},{"key":"13321_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2015.08.002","volume":"42","author":"M Assink","year":"2015","unstructured":"Assink, M., van der Put, C. E., Hoeve, M., de Vries, S. L., Stams, G. J. J., & Oort, F. J. (2015). Risk factors for persistent delinquent behavior among juveniles: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 42, 47\u201361. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cpr.2015.08.002","journal-title":"Clinical Psychology Review"},{"key":"13321_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Assink, M., & Wibbelink, C. J. (2016). Fitting three-level meta-analytic models in R: A step-by-step tutorial.\u00a0The Quantitative Methods for Psychology,\u00a012(3), 154\u2013174.\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.20982\/tqmp.12.3.p154","DOI":"10.20982\/tqmp.12.3.p154"},{"issue":"2","key":"13321_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.129.2.195","volume":"129","author":"MJ Bakermans-Kranenburg","year":"2003","unstructured":"Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2003). Less is more: Meta-analyses of sensitivity and attachment interventions in early childhood. Psychological Bulletin, 129(2), 195\u2013215. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-2909.129.2.195","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"issue":"4","key":"13321_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009436509753","volume":"8","author":"N Barnea","year":"1999","unstructured":"*Barnea, N., & Dori, Y. J. (1999). High-school chemistry students\u2019 performance and gender differences in a computerized molecular modeling learning environment. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 8(4), 257\u2013271. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023\/A:1009436509753","journal-title":"Journal of Science Education and Technology"},{"key":"13321_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470743386"},{"issue":"1","key":"13321_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1515\/cti-2019-0009","volume":"3","author":"CE Brown","year":"2020","unstructured":"*Brown, C. E., Alrmuny, D., Williams, M. K., Whaley, B., & Hyslop, R. M. (2020). Visualizing molecular structures and shapes: A comparison of virtual reality, computer simulation, and traditional modeling. Chemistry Teacher International, 3(1), 69\u201380.","journal-title":"Chemistry Teacher International"},{"issue":"1","key":"13321_CR9","first-page":"40","volume":"31","author":"S Cai","year":"2021","unstructured":"*Cai, S., Zhang, P., Li, J. X., & Chang, J. T. (2021). Impact of interactive AR teaching on students\u2019 cognitive ability-Taking the knowledge points of chemical electrolytic cell of high school as an example. Modern Educational Technolog, 31(1), 40\u201346. [In Chinese].","journal-title":"Modern Educational Technolog"},{"issue":"3","key":"13321_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"866","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jchemed.0c01227","volume":"98","author":"S Ca\u00f1o de las Heras","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ca\u00f1o de las Heras, S., Kensington-Miller, B., Young, B., Gonzalez, V., Kr\u00fchne, U., Mansouri, S. S., & Baroutian, S. (2021). Benefits and challenges of a virtual laboratory in chemical and biochemical engineering: Students\u2019 experiences in fermentation. Journal of Chemical Education, 98(3), 866\u2013875. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acs.jchemed.0c01227","journal-title":"Journal of Chemical Education"},{"issue":"10","key":"13321_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7433","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2022.2072898","volume":"31","author":"X Cao","year":"2023","unstructured":"Cao, X., & Hsu, Y. (2023). Systematic review and meta-analysis of the impact of virtual experiments on students\u2019 learning effectiveness. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(10), 7433\u20137454. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10494820.2022.2072898","journal-title":"Interactive Learning Environments"},{"key":"13321_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"*Cen, L., Ruta, D., Al Qassem, L. M. M. S., & Ng, J. (2019). Augmented immersive reality (AIR) for improved learning performance: a quantitative evaluation.\u00a0IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies,\u00a013(2), 283-296.\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TLT.2019.2937525","DOI":"10.1109\/TLT.2019.2937525"},{"key":"13321_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104641","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2022.104641","volume":"191","author":"HY Chang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Chang, H. Y., Binali, T., Liang, J. C., Chiou, G. L., Cheng, K. H., Lee, S. W. Y., & Tsai, C. C. (2022). Ten years of augmented reality in education: A meta-analysis of (quasi-) experimental studies to investigate the impact. Computers & Education, 191, 104641. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2022.104641","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"issue":"2","key":"13321_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1037\/a0032968","volume":"19","author":"MWL Cheung","year":"2014","unstructured":"Cheung, M. W. L. (2014). Modeling dependent effect sizes with three-level meta- analyses: A structural equation modeling approach. Psychological Methods, 19(2), 211. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0032968","journal-title":"Psychological Methods"},{"issue":"4","key":"13321_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-019-09415-6","volume":"29","author":"MWL Cheung","year":"2019","unstructured":"Cheung, M. W. L. (2019). A guide to conducting a meta-analysis with non-independent effect sizes. Neuropsychology Review, 29(4), 387\u2013396. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11065-019-09415-6","journal-title":"Neuropsychology Review"},{"key":"13321_CR16","volume-title":"Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences","author":"J Cohen","year":"1988","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.","edition":"2"},{"key":"13321_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02211261","volume":"4","author":"CE Copolo","year":"1995","unstructured":"*Copolo, C. E., & Hounshell, P. B. (1995). Using three-dimensional models to teach molecular structures in high school chemistry. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 4, 295\u2013305. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/BF02211261","journal-title":"Journal of Science Education and Technology"},{"issue":"3","key":"13321_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1007\/s10956-023-10032-5","volume":"32","author":"JG Cromley","year":"2023","unstructured":"Cromley, J. G., Chen, R., & Lawrence, L. (2023). Meta-Analysis of STEM Learning Using Virtual Reality: Benefits Across the Board. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 32(3), 355\u2013364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10956-023-10032-5","journal-title":"Journal of Science Education and Technology"},{"issue":"4","key":"13321_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1017\/S2045796016000809","volume":"26","author":"P Cuijpers","year":"2017","unstructured":"Cuijpers, P., Weitz, E., Cristea, I. A., & Twisk, J. (2017). Pre-post effect sizes should be avoided in meta-analyses. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 26(4), 364\u2013368. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S2045796016000809","journal-title":"Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences"},{"key":"13321_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"*Dalgarno, B., Bishop, A. G., Adlong, W., & Bedgood Jr, D. R. (2009). Effectiveness of a virtual laboratory as a preparatory resource for distance education chemistry students.\u00a0Computers & Education,\u00a053(3), 853-865.\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2009.05.005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2009.05.005"},{"issue":"1","key":"13321_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-022-10082-3","volume":"70","author":"X Di","year":"2022","unstructured":"Di, X., & Zheng, X. (2022). A meta-analysis of the impact of virtual technologies on students\u2019 spatial ability. Educational Technology Research and Development, 70(1), 73\u201398. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11423-022-10082-3","journal-title":"Educational Technology Research and Development"},{"key":"13321_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"*Elford, D., Lancaster, S. J., & Jones, G. A. (2022a). Exploring the effect of augmented reality on cognitive load, attitude, spatial ability, and stereochemical perception.\u00a0Journal of Science Education and Technology,\u00a031(3), 322-339.\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10956-022-09957-0","DOI":"10.1007\/s10956-022-09957-0"},{"key":"13321_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"*Elford, D., Lancaster, S. J., & Jones, G. A. (2022b). Fostering motivation toward chemistry through augmented reality educational escape activities. A self-determination theory approach.\u00a0Journal of Chemical Education,\u00a099(10), 3406\u20133417. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acs.jchemed.2c00428","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jchemed.2c00428"},{"issue":"3","key":"13321_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1515\/cti-2022-0047","volume":"5","author":"AT Eticha","year":"2023","unstructured":"*Eticha, A. T., Amde, M., Bogale, Y., & Bekana, D. (2023). The effect of context-based close packing supported with the 3D-virtual model of crystals structure on students\u2019 achievement and attitude. Chemistry Teacher International, 5(3), 311\u2013323. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515\/cti-2022-0047","journal-title":"Chemistry Teacher International"},{"issue":"2","key":"13321_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1039\/D1RP00317H","volume":"23","author":"A Fombona-Pascual","year":"2022","unstructured":"Fombona-Pascual, A., Fombona, J., & V\u00e1zquez-Cano, E. (2022). VR in chemistry, a review of scientific research on advanced atomic\/molecular visualization. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 23(2), 300\u2013312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/D1RP00317H","journal-title":"Chemistry Education Research and Practice"},{"key":"13321_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.edurev.2019.04.001","volume":"27","author":"J Garz\u00f3n","year":"2019","unstructured":"Garz\u00f3n, J., & Acevedo, J. (2019). Meta-analysis of the impact of Augmented Reality on students\u2019 learning gains. Educational Research Review, 27, 244\u2013260. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.edurev.2019.04.001","journal-title":"Educational Research Review"},{"key":"13321_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"*Hawkins, I., & Phelps, A. J. (2013). Virtual laboratory vs. traditional laboratory: which is more effective for teaching electrochemistry?\u00a0Chemistry Education Research and Practice,\u00a014(4), 516\u2013523. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/C3RP00070B","DOI":"10.1039\/C3RP00070B"},{"issue":"2","key":"13321_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.3102\/10769986006002107","volume":"6","author":"LV Hedges","year":"1981","unstructured":"Hedges, L. V. (1981). Distribution theory for Glass\u2019s estimator of effect size and related estimators. Journal of Educational Statistics, 6(2), 107\u2013128. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3102\/10769986006002107","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Statistics"},{"key":"13321_CR29","unstructured":"Henriksen, D., Mishra, P., & Fisser, P. (2016). Infusing creativity and technology in 21st century education: A systemic view for change.\u00a0Journal of Educational Technology & Society,\u00a019(3), 27\u201337. https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/jeductechsoci.19.3.27"},{"key":"13321_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2018.03.003","volume":"122","author":"GW Hodges","year":"2018","unstructured":"*Hodges, G. W., Wang, L., Lee, J., Cohen, A., & Jang, Y. (2018). An exploratory study of blending the virtual world and the laboratory experience in secondary chemistry classrooms. Computers & Education, 122, 179\u2013193. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2018.03.003","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"issue":"9","key":"13321_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.1002\/tea.21765","volume":"59","author":"Y Hu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hu, Y., Gallagher, T., Wouters, P., van der Schaaf, M., & Kester, L. (2022). Game-based learning has good chemistry with chemistry education: A three-level meta-analysis. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 59(9), 1499\u20131543. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/tea.21765","journal-title":"Journal of Research in Science Teaching"},{"key":"13321_CR32","unstructured":"Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, F. L. (2004). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings (2nd ed.). Sage Publications."},{"key":"13321_CR33","unstructured":"Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1989). Cooperation and competition: Theory and research. Interaction Book Company."},{"issue":"1","key":"13321_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1037\/a0034008","volume":"106","author":"MC Johnson-Glenberg","year":"2014","unstructured":"*Johnson-Glenberg, M. C., Birchfield, D. A., Tolentino, L., & Koziupa, T. (2014). Collaborative embodied learning in mixed reality motion-capture environments: Two science studies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 86. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0034008","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"issue":"2","key":"13321_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2729.1991.tb00230.x","volume":"7","author":"AH Johnstone","year":"1991","unstructured":"Johnstone, A. H. (1991). Why is science difficult to learn? Things are seldom what they seem. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 7(2), 75\u201383. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1365-2729.1991.tb00230.x","journal-title":"Journal of Computer Assisted Learning"},{"issue":"9","key":"13321_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6017","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2022.2027458","volume":"31","author":"J Kalemku\u015f","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kalemku\u015f, J., & Kalemku\u015f, F. (2023). Effect of the use of augmented reality applications on academic achievement of student in science education: Meta analysis review. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(9), 6017\u20136034. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10494820.2022.2027458","journal-title":"Interactive Learning Environments"},{"issue":"6","key":"13321_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.33225\/jbse\/13.12.784","volume":"12","author":"N Kunduz","year":"2013","unstructured":"*Kunduz, N., & Secken, N. (2013). Development and application of 7E learning model based computer-assisted teaching materials on precipitation titrations. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 12(6), 784.","journal-title":"Journal of Baltic Science Education"},{"key":"13321_CR38","unstructured":"Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. SAGE publications."},{"issue":"2","key":"13321_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1007\/s10956-022-10014-z","volume":"32","author":"Q Liu","year":"2023","unstructured":"*Liu, Q., Ma, J., Yu, S., Wang, Q., & Xu, S. (2023). Effects of an augmented reality-based chemistry experiential application on student knowledge gains, learning motivation, and technology perception. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 32(2), 153\u2013167. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10956-022-10014-z","journal-title":"Journal of Science Education and Technology"},{"issue":"3","key":"13321_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.3102\/00346543071003449","volume":"71","author":"Y Lou","year":"2001","unstructured":"Lou, Y., Abrami, P. C., & d\u2019Apollonia, S. (2001). Small group and individual learning with technology: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71(3), 449\u2013521. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3102\/00346543071003449","journal-title":"Review of Educational Research"},{"key":"13321_CR41","first-page":"8","volume":"7","author":"PY Lou","year":"2021","unstructured":"*Lou, P. Y., & Wang, Z. H. (2021). Evidence study on the effect of virtual mimetic application software to high school students\u2019 cognition of models. Education in Chemistry, 7, 8\u201313. [In Chinese].","journal-title":"Education in Chemistry"},{"key":"13321_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2017.12.007","volume":"60","author":"G Makransky","year":"2019","unstructured":"Makransky, G., Terkildsen, T. S., & Mayer, R. E. (2019). Adding immersive virtual reality to a science lab simulation causes more presence but less learning. Learning and Instruction, 60, 225\u2013236. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2017.12.007","journal-title":"Learning and Instruction"},{"key":"13321_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2013.07.033","volume":"70","author":"Z Merchant","year":"2014","unstructured":"Merchant, Z., Goetz, E. T., Cifuentes, L., Keeney-Kennicutt, W., & Davis, T. J. (2014). Effectiveness of virtual reality-based instruction on students\u2019 learning outcomes in K-12 and higher education: A meta-analysis. Computers & Education, 70, 29\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2013.07.033","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"issue":"6","key":"13321_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1111\/jcal.12018","volume":"29","author":"Z Merchant","year":"2013","unstructured":"*Merchant, Z., Goetz, E. T., Keeney-Kennicutt, W., Cifuentes, L., Kwok, O. M., & Davis, T. J. (2013). Exploring 3-D virtual reality technology for spatial ability and chemistry achievement. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 29(6), 579\u2013590. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/jcal.12018","journal-title":"Journal of Computer Assisted Learning"},{"key":"13321_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1007\/s10755-021-09551-z","volume":"46","author":"MD Miller","year":"2021","unstructured":"*Miller, M. D., Castillo, G., Medoff, N., & Hardy, A. (2021). Immersive VR for organic chemistry: impacts on performance and grades for first-generation and continuing-generation university students. Innovative Higher Education, 46, 565\u2013589. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10755-021-09551-z","journal-title":"Innovative Higher Education"},{"issue":"5","key":"13321_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsu.2010.02.007","volume":"8","author":"D Moher","year":"2010","unstructured":"Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., Prisma Group. (2010). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. International Journal of Surgery, 8(5), 336\u2013341. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijsu.2010.02.007","journal-title":"International Journal of Surgery"},{"issue":"8","key":"13321_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.1021\/ed4005084","volume":"91","author":"EB Moore","year":"2014","unstructured":"Moore, E. B., Chamberlain, J. M., Parson, R., & Perkins, K. K. (2014). PhET interactive simulations: Transformative tools for teaching chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education, 91(8), 1191\u20131197. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/ed4005084","journal-title":"Journal of Chemical Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"13321_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2007.06.002","volume":"51","author":"H \u00d6zmen","year":"2008","unstructured":"*\u00d6zmen, H. (2008). The influence of computer-assisted instruction on students\u2019 conceptual understanding of chemical bonding and attitude toward chemistry: A case for Turkey. Computers & Education, 51(1), 423\u2013438. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2007.06.002","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"key":"13321_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. International University Press.","DOI":"10.1037\/11494-000"},{"key":"13321_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-016-0285-9","volume":"20","author":"L Rebenitsch","year":"2016","unstructured":"Rebenitsch, L., & Owen, C. (2016). Review on cybersickness in applications and visual displays. Virtual Reality, 20, 101\u2013125. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10055-016-0285-9","journal-title":"Virtual Reality"},{"issue":"2","key":"13321_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1037\/met0000300","volume":"26","author":"MA Rodgers","year":"2021","unstructured":"Rodgers, M. A., & Pustejovsky, J. E. (2021). Evaluating meta-analytic methods to detect selective reporting in the presence of dependent effect sizes. Psychological Methods, 26(2), 141. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/met0000300","journal-title":"Psychological Methods"},{"issue":"3","key":"13321_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.86.3.638","volume":"86","author":"R Rosenthal","year":"1979","unstructured":"Rosenthal, R. (1979). The file drawer problem and tolerance for null results. Psychological Bulletin, 86(3), 638\u2013641. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-2909.86.3.638","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"13321_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1007\/s11292-007-9046-9","volume":"4","author":"HR Rothstein","year":"2008","unstructured":"Rothstein, H. R. (2008). Publication bias as a threat to the validity of meta-analytic results. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 4, 61\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11292-007-9046-9","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Criminology"},{"key":"13321_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Rothstein, H. R., Sutton, A. J., & Borenstein, M. (2005). Publication bias in meta\u2010analysis.\u00a0Publication bias in meta\u2010analysis: Prevention, assessment and adjustments, 1\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/0470870168","DOI":"10.1002\/0470870168"},{"key":"13321_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Song, Q., Zhang, J., Wang, H., Zhang, Z., & Zhou, Q. (2023). Configuring factors influencing science teachers\u2019 intention to use virtual experiments in China: An fsQCA-based study.\u00a0Journal of Science Education and Technology, 1\u201316. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10956-023-10084-7","DOI":"10.1007\/s10956-023-10084-7"},{"issue":"2","key":"13321_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1177\/1536867X0400400204","volume":"4","author":"JA Sterne","year":"2004","unstructured":"Sterne, J. A., & Harbord, R. M. (2004). Funnel plots in meta-analysis. The Stata Journal, 4(2), 127\u2013141. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1536867X0400400204","journal-title":"The Stata Journal"},{"issue":"2","key":"13321_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.3390\/app11020762","volume":"11","author":"W Tarng","year":"2021","unstructured":"*Tarng, W., Lin, Y. J., & Ou, K. L. (2021). A virtual experiment for learning the principle of daniell cell based on augmented reality. Applied Sciences, 11(2), 762. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app11020762","journal-title":"Applied Sciences"},{"issue":"5","key":"13321_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.3390\/systems10050141","volume":"10","author":"W Tarng","year":"2022","unstructured":"*Tarng, W., Tseng, Y. C., & Ou, K. L. (2022). Application of Augmented Reality for Learning Material Structures and Chemical Equilibrium in High School Chemistry. Systems, 10(5), 141. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/systems10050141","journal-title":"Systems"},{"key":"13321_CR59","unstructured":"*Tatli, Z., & Ayas, A. (2013). Effect of a virtual chemistry laboratory on students\u2019 achievement.\u00a0Journal of Educational Technology & Society,\u00a016(1), 159\u2013170. https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/jeductechsoci.16.1.159"},{"key":"13321_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"*Tsai, C. Y., Ho, Y. C., & Nisar, H. (2021). Design and validation of a virtual chemical laboratory\u2014An example of natural science in elementary education.\u00a0Applied Sciences,\u00a011(21), 10070.\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app112110070","DOI":"10.3390\/app112110070"},{"key":"13321_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1007\/s11165-008-9091-z","volume":"39","author":"D Urhahne","year":"2009","unstructured":"*Urhahne, D., Nick, S., & Schanze, S. (2009). The effect of three-dimensional simulations on the understanding of chemical structures and their properties. Research in Science Education, 39, 495\u2013513. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11165-008-9091-z","journal-title":"Research in Science Education"},{"issue":"3","key":"13321_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.3102\/10769986030003261","volume":"30","author":"W Viechtbauer","year":"2005","unstructured":"Viechtbauer, W. (2005). Bias and efficiency of meta-analytic variance estimators in the random-effects model. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 30(3), 261\u2013293. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3102\/10769986030003261","journal-title":"Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics"},{"key":"13321_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Viechtbauer, W. (2010). Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package.\u00a0Journal of statistical software,\u00a036, 1\u201348. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18637\/jss.v036.i03","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v036.i03"},{"key":"13321_CR64","unstructured":"Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press."},{"issue":"4","key":"13321_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.4018\/IJCALLT.2018100104","volume":"8","author":"AT Wan","year":"2018","unstructured":"*Wan, A. T., San, L. Y., & Omar, M. S. (2018). Augmented reality technology for year 10 chemistry class: Can the students learn better? International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching (IJCALLT), 8(4), 45\u201364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4018\/IJCALLT.2018100104","journal-title":"International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching (IJCALLT)"},{"issue":"1\u20134","key":"13321_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(03)00271-3","volume":"285","author":"M Weiler","year":"2004","unstructured":"Weiler, M., & McDonnell, J. (2004). Virtual experiments: A new approach for improving process conceptualization in hillslope hydrology. Journal of Hydrology, 285(1\u20134), 3\u201318. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0022-1694(03)00271-3","journal-title":"Journal of Hydrology"},{"issue":"5","key":"13321_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2019.1696844","volume":"28","author":"K Winkelmann","year":"2020","unstructured":"*Winkelmann, K., Keeney-Kennicutt, W., Fowler, D., Lazo Macik, M., Perez Guarda, P., & Joan Ahlborn, C. (2020). Learning gains and attitudes of students performing chemistry experiments in an immersive virtual world. Interactive Learning Environments, 28(5), 620\u2013634. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10494820.2019.1696844","journal-title":"Interactive Learning Environments"},{"issue":"5","key":"13321_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1007\/s10956-022-09982-z","volume":"31","author":"WW Xu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Xu, W. W., Su, C. Y., Hu, Y., & Chen, C. H. (2022). Exploring the effectiveness and moderators of augmented reality on science learning: A meta-analysis. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 31(5), 621\u2013637. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10956-022-09982-z","journal-title":"Journal of Science Education and Technology"},{"key":"13321_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"*Yang, Q. F., Lin, H., Hwang, G. J., Su, P. Y., & Zhao, J. H. (2022). An exploration-based SVVR approach to promote students\u2019 chemistry learning effectiveness.\u00a0Interactive Learning Environments, 1\u201325. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10494820.2022.2135106","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2022.2135106"},{"issue":"5978","key":"13321_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1182435","volume":"328","author":"D Yaron","year":"2010","unstructured":"Yaron, D., Karabinos, M., Lange, D., Greeno, J. G., & Leinhardt, G. (2010). The ChemCollective\u2014virtual labs for introductory chemistry courses. Science, 328(5978), 584\u2013585. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.1182435","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"13321_CR71","volume-title":"Educational uses of virtual reality technology","author":"C Youngblut","year":"1998","unstructured":"Youngblut, C. (1998). Educational uses of virtual reality technology. Institute for Defence Analyses."},{"key":"13321_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"*Zhu, P. F., Li, L. S., & Mai, Y. H. (2023). Effects of augmented reality on the chemistry learning of organic matter\u2019s microstructure in high school students. Journal of Tianjin Normal University (Elementary Education Edition), 24(4), 41\u201347.\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.16826\/j.cnki.1009-7228.2023.04.008. [In Chinese]","DOI":"10.16826\/j.cnki.1009-7228.2023.04.008"}],"container-title":["Education and Information Technologies"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10639-025-13321-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10639-025-13321-1\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10639-025-13321-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,6]],"date-time":"2025-09-06T05:05:20Z","timestamp":1757135120000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s10639-025-13321-1"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]]},"references-count":72,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["13321"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10639-025-13321-1","relation":{},"ISSN":["1360-2357","1573-7608"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1360-2357","type":"print"},{"value":"1573-7608","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]]},"assertion":[{"value":"17 May 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"2 January 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"31 January 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable. This study is a meta-analysis based on previously published data and did not involve direct data collection from human or animal subjects","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethical Approval"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Informed Consent"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Statement Regarding Research Involving Human Participants and\/or Animals"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to Participate"}},{"value":"The authors hereby consent to the publication of the research findings in this manuscript in Education and Information Technologies. We acknowledge and agree to the dissemination of our research results in the journal.","order":6,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to Publish"}},{"value":"There are no conflicts of interest to report for this study.","order":7,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing Interests"}}]}}