{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,25]],"date-time":"2026-07-25T13:32:27Z","timestamp":1784986347980,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]],"date-time":"2025-12-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766707200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]],"date-time":"2025-12-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766707200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100023975","name":"Research and Creative Achievement at University of Maryland, Baltimore County","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100023975","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Educ Inf Technol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Although there is growing evidence of the potential value of physically present educational robots in improving engagement and learning outcomes with young children, there is limited understanding of how those effects may play out over an extended period in a real school environment. There is also sparse literature on students\u2019 and teachers\u2019 experiences and perspectives with a robot-assisted learning system deployed at school. In this paper, we report a two-phase pilot study using a commercially available robot-assisted learning system ABii from Van Robotics with 24 students from two early childhood classrooms in a resource-constrained urban public school on the east coast of the US. The first phase was a researcher-directed pilot that ran for eight weeks, followed by a second phase of a teacher-directed pilot that lasted five months, where teachers were empowered to take charge of the robot usage in their classrooms. We reported the findings concerning students\u2019 and teachers\u2019 experience and perspectives with the systems using a combination of quantitative data from the system logs and qualitative data from observation and interviews. We observed positive effects of the physically present robot, as students maintained sustained interest and engagement with ABii even after eight weeks of use. Teachers likewise valued ABii\u2019s role in supporting engagement and delivering personalized learning experiences\u2014benefits that were particularly meaningful in resource-constrained environments, despite certain challenges associated with deploying physical robots. Moreover, our findings highlight the essential role of teachers in the successful integration of advanced technologies such as educational robots, suggesting that human teachers remain central to realizing educational robots\u2019 full pedagogical potential. We discuss the implication of those findings by reflecting on the current literature on educational social robots and articulating their contribution to the empirical understanding of the potential value and challenges in leveraging robot-assisted learning systems with young children in under-resourced school environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-025-13865-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]],"date-time":"2025-12-26T08:17:17Z","timestamp":1766737037000},"page":"1481-1516","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["ABii at School: Findings from a Long-Term In-School Field Study with a Commercial Robot-Assisted Learning System"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"31","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7185-8405","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lujie Karen","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4374-9612","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"LeaAnne","family":"Daughrity","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-4064-9904","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marie","family":"Sakowicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1991-6062","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Foad","family":"Hamidi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0127-986X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karrie","family":"Godwin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9630-9744","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lin Lin","family":"Lipsmeyer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"13865_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-015-0286-y","volume":"7","author":"M Alemi","year":"2015","unstructured":"Alemi, M., Meghdari, A., & Ghazisaedy, M. (2015). The impact of social robotics on l2 learners\u2019 anxiety and attitude in English vocabulary acquisition. International Journal of Social Robotics, 7, 523\u2013535.","journal-title":"International Journal of Social Robotics"},{"key":"13865_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Banko, A., Leoste, J., & \u00d5un, T. (2025). Exploring the impact of social robots on second language learning in primary and elementary schools: Teacher involvement and learning outcomes. Educational media international (pp. 1\u201318).","DOI":"10.1080\/09523987.2025.2505505"},{"issue":"5","key":"13865_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0178126","volume":"12","author":"P Baxter","year":"2017","unstructured":"Baxter, P., Ashurst, E., Read, R., Kennedy, J., & Belpaeme, T. (2017). Robot education peers in a situated primary school study: Personalisation promotes child learning. PloS One, 12(5), Article e0178126.","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"13865_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beck, J.\u00a0E., & Gong, Y. (2013). Wheel-spinning: Students who fail to master a skill. In Artificial intelligence in education: 16th International Conference, AIED 2013, Memphis, TN, USA, July 9-13, 2013. Proceedings 16 (pp. 431\u2013440). Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-39112-5_44"},{"key":"13865_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Belpaeme, T., Kennedy, J., Ramachandran, A., Scassellati, B., & Tanaka, F. (2018a). Social robots for education: A review. Science Robotics,3(21), eaat5954.","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aat5954"},{"key":"13865_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Belpaeme, T., Vogt, P., Van den Berghe, R., Bergmann, K., G\u00f6ksun, T., De Haas, M., Kanero, J., Kennedy, J., K\u00fcntay, A. C., Oudgenoeg-Paz, O., et al. (2018b). Guidelines for designing social robots as second language tutors. International Journal of Social Robotics,10, 325\u2013341.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-018-0467-6"},{"issue":"6","key":"13865_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.3102\/0013189X013006004","volume":"13","author":"BS Bloom","year":"1984","unstructured":"Bloom, B. S. (1984). The 2 sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Researcher, 13(6), 4\u201316.","journal-title":"Educational Researcher"},{"issue":"1","key":"13865_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/26895269.2022.2129597","volume":"24","author":"V Braun","year":"2023","unstructured":"Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2023). Toward good practice in thematic analysis: Avoiding common problems and be (com) ing a knowing researcher. International Journal of Transgender Health, 24(1), 1\u20136.","journal-title":"International Journal of Transgender Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"13865_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-023-00356-z","volume":"34","author":"P Brusilovsky","year":"2024","unstructured":"Brusilovsky, P. (2024). Ai in education, learner control, and human-ai collaboration. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 34(1), 122\u2013135.","journal-title":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education"},{"key":"13865_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u00fchler, B., Bozkir, E., Goldberg, P., S\u00fcmer, \u00d6., D\u2019Mello, S., Gerjets, P., Trautwein, U., & Kasneci, E. (2024). From the lab to the wild: Examining generalizability of video-based mind wandering detection. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education (pp. 1\u201335).","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-024-00412-2"},{"issue":"3","key":"13865_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1177\/016146811011200303","volume":"112","author":"G Camilli","year":"2010","unstructured":"Camilli, G., Vargas, S., Ryan, S., & Barnett, W. S. (2010). Meta-analysis of the effects of early education interventions on cognitive and social development. Teachers College Record, 112(3), 579\u2013620.","journal-title":"Teachers College Record"},{"key":"13865_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Causo, A., Win, P.\u00a0Z., Guo, P.\u00a0S., & Chen, I.-M. (2017). Deploying social robots as teaching aid in pre-school k2 classes: A proof-of-concept study. In 2017 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) (pp. 4264\u20134269). IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2017.7989490"},{"issue":"5","key":"13865_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-6870(00)00009-0","volume":"31","author":"CW Clegg","year":"2000","unstructured":"Clegg, C. W. (2000). Sociotechnical principles for system design. Applied Ergonomics, 31(5), 463\u2013477.","journal-title":"Applied Ergonomics"},{"issue":"5","key":"13865_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.12654","volume":"49","author":"H Crompton","year":"2018","unstructured":"Crompton, H., Gregory, K., & Burke, D. (2018). Humanoid robots supporting children\u2019s learning in an early childhood setting. British Journal of Educational Technology, 49(5), 911\u2013927.","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Technology"},{"key":"13865_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-9094-9","volume-title":"Applications of flow in human development and education","author":"M Csikszentmihalyi","year":"2014","unstructured":"Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2014). Applications of flow in human development and education. Springer."},{"key":"13865_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Darmawansah, D., & Hwang, G. -J. (2024). Effects of robot-based multiple low-stakes assessments on students\u2019 oral presentation performance, collective efficacy, and learning attitude. Educational technology research and development (pp. 1\u201327).","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-024-10360-2"},{"key":"13865_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davison, D.\u00a0P., Wijnen, F.\u00a0M., Charisi, V., van\u00a0der Meij, J., Evers, V., & Reidsma, D. (2020). Working with a social robot in school: a long-term real-world unsupervised deployment. In Proceedings of the 2020 ACM\/IEEE international conference on human-robot interaction (pp. 63\u201372).","DOI":"10.1145\/3319502.3374803"},{"issue":"2","key":"13865_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3638066","volume":"13","author":"C De Jong","year":"2024","unstructured":"De Jong, C., Peter, J., K\u00fchne, R., & Barco, A. (2024). Children\u2019s acceptance of a domestic social robot: How it evolves over time. ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction, 13(2), 1\u201320.","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction"},{"issue":"20","key":"13865_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.4135\/9781446249215.n21","volume":"1","author":"EL Deci","year":"2012","unstructured":"Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Self-determination theory. Handbook of theories of social psychology, 1(20), 416\u2013436.","journal-title":"Handbook of theories of social psychology"},{"key":"13865_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2018.06.015","volume":"125","author":"A Deublein","year":"2018","unstructured":"Deublein, A., Pfeifer, A., Merbach, K., Bruckner, K., Mengelkamp, C., & Lugrin, B. (2018). Scaffolding of motivation in learning using a social robot. Computers & Education, 125, 182\u2013190.","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"key":"13865_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u00edaz, B., & Nussbaum, M. (2024). Artificial intelligence for teaching and learning in schools: The need for pedagogical intelligence. Computers & Education (p. 105071).","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2024.105071"},{"key":"13865_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DiPaola, D., Charisi, V., Breazeal, C., & Sabanovic, S. (2023). Children\u2019s fundamental rights in human-robot interaction research: A systematic review. In Companion of the 2023 ACM\/IEEE international conference on human-robot interaction (pp. 561\u2013566).","DOI":"10.1145\/3568294.3580148"},{"key":"13865_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2016.06.005","volume":"65","author":"A Edwards","year":"2016","unstructured":"Edwards, A., Edwards, C., Spence, P. R., Harris, C., & Gambino, A. (2016). Robots in the classroom: Differences in students\u2019 perceptions of credibility and learning between \u201cteacher as robot\u2019\u2019 and \u201crobot as teacher\u2019\u2019. Computers in Human Behavior, 65, 627\u2013634.","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"key":"13865_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ekstr\u00f6m, S., Pareto, L., & Ljungblad, S. (2024). Teaching in a collaborative mathematic learning activity with and without a social robot. Education and Information Technologies, 1\u201328.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-12926-2"},{"issue":"9","key":"13865_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12609","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-022-11132-2","volume":"27","author":"S Ekstr\u00f6m","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ekstr\u00f6m, S., & Pareto, L. (2022). The dual role of humanoid robots in education: As didactic tools and social actors. Education and Information Technologies, 27(9), 12609\u201312644.","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"key":"13865_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fang, J.-W., Ji, T.-T., Tu, Y.-F., Hwang, G.-J., Zou, D., & Chen, J. (2025). Effects of a human-robot collaborative teaching approach on preschoolers\u2019 social-emotional competence and learning behaviors. Computers & Education, 105469.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105469"},{"key":"13865_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fung, K.\u00a0Y., Lee, L.\u00a0H., Sin, K.\u00a0F., Song, S., & Qu, H. (2024). Humanoid robot-empowered language learning based on self-determination theory. Education and Information Technologies, 1\u201330.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-13054-7"},{"key":"13865_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gordon, G., & Breazeal, C. (2015). Bayesian active learning-based robot tutor for children\u2019s word-reading skills. In AAAI (pp. 1343\u20131349).","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v29i1.9376"},{"key":"13865_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gordon, G., Spaulding, S., Westlund, J.\u00a0K., Lee, J.\u00a0J., Plummer, L., Martinez, M., Das, M., & Breazeal, C. (2016). Affective personalization of a social robot tutor for children\u2019s second language skills. In AAAI (pp. 3951\u20133957).","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v30i1.9914"},{"key":"13865_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Irfan, B., Ramachandran, A., Spaulding, S., Kalkan, S., Parisi, G.\u00a0I., & Gunes, H. (2021). Lifelong learning and personalization in long-term human-robot interaction (leap-hri). In Companion of the 2021 ACM\/IEEE international conference on human-robot interaction (pp. 724\u2013727).","DOI":"10.1145\/3434074.3444881"},{"issue":"6","key":"13865_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2340","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13144","volume":"52","author":"A Istenic","year":"2021","unstructured":"Istenic, A., Bratko, I., & Rosanda, V. (2021). Are pre-service teachers disinclined to utilise embodied humanoid social robots in the classroom? British Journal of Educational Technology, 52(6), 2340\u20132358.","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Technology"},{"key":"13865_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jao, C.-Y., Fu, J.\u00a0S., & Yeh, H.-C. (2025). Exploring students\u2019 perceived benefits of multimodal content creation with social robots in language learning. Interactive learning environments (pp. 1\u201314).","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2025.2498538"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"13865_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327051hci1901&2_4","volume":"19","author":"T Kanda","year":"2004","unstructured":"Kanda, T., Hirano, T., Eaton, D., & Ishiguro, H. (2004). Interactive robots as social partners and peer tutors for children: A field trial. Human-Computer Interaction, 19(1\u20132), 61\u201384.","journal-title":"Human-Computer Interaction"},{"issue":"5","key":"13865_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"962","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2007.904904","volume":"23","author":"T Kanda","year":"2007","unstructured":"Kanda, T., Sato, R., Saiwaki, N., & Ishiguro, H. (2007). A two-month field trial in an elementary school for long-term human-robot interaction. IEEE Transactions on Robotics, 23(5), 962\u2013971.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Robotics"},{"key":"13865_CR35","unstructured":"Keller, J. (1983). Motivational design of instruction. Instructional design theories and models: An overview of their current status\/Lawrence Erlbaum Associates."},{"key":"13865_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kidd, C.\u00a0D., & Breazeal, C. (2004). Effect of a robot on user perceptions. In 2004 IEEE\/RSJ international conference on intelligent robots and systems (IROS)(IEEE Cat. No. 04CH37566) (vol.\u00a04, pp. 3559\u20133564). IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2004.1389967"},{"key":"13865_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3233","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-021-10051-2","volume":"69","author":"Y Kim","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kim, Y., Marx, S., Pham, H. V., & Nguyen, T. (2021). Designing for robot-mediated interaction among culturally and linguistically diverse children. Educational Technology Research and Development, 69, 3233\u20133254.","journal-title":"Educational Technology Research and Development"},{"key":"13865_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2059","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-021-09978-3","volume":"69","author":"Y Kim","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kim, Y., & Tscholl, M. (2021). Young children\u2019s embodied interactions with a social robot. Educational Technology Research and Development, 69, 2059\u20132081.","journal-title":"Educational Technology Research and Development"},{"key":"13865_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2020.103970","volume":"157","author":"EA Konijn","year":"2020","unstructured":"Konijn, E. A., & Hoorn, J. F. (2020). Robot tutor and pupils\u2019 educational ability: Teaching the times tables. Computers & Education, 157, Article 103970.","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"13865_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.3390\/info16010029","volume":"16","author":"G Lampropoulos","year":"2025","unstructured":"Lampropoulos, G. (2025). Social robots in education: Current trends and future perspectives. Information, 16(1), 29.","journal-title":"Information"},{"issue":"4","key":"13865_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3526105","volume":"11","author":"T Law","year":"2022","unstructured":"Law, T., Chita-Tegmark, M., Rabb, N., & Scheutz, M. (2022). Examining attachment to robots: Benefits, challenges, and alternatives. ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction (THRI), 11(4), 1\u201318.","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction (THRI)"},{"issue":"1","key":"13865_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1111\/jcal.12872","volume":"40","author":"GK LeTendre","year":"2024","unstructured":"LeTendre, G. K., & Gray, R. (2024). Social robots in a project-based learning environment: Adolescent understanding of robot-human interactions. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 40(1), 192\u2013204.","journal-title":"Journal of Computer Assisted Learning"},{"key":"13865_CR43","unstructured":"Leyzberg, D., Spaulding, S., Toneva, M., & Scassellati, B. (2012). The physical presence of a robot tutor increases cognitive learning gains. In Proceedings of the annual meeting of the cognitive science society (vol.\u00a034)."},{"key":"13865_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ligthart, M.\u00a0E., De\u00a0Droog, S.\u00a0M., Bossema, M., Elloumi, L., de\u00a0Haas, M., Smakman, M.\u00a0H., Hindriks, K.\u00a0V., & Ben\u00a0Allouch, S. (2024). Back to school-sustaining recurring child-robot educational interactions after a long break. In Proceedings of the 2024 ACM\/IEEE international conference on human-robot interaction (pp. 433\u2013442).","DOI":"10.1145\/3610977.3635001"},{"key":"13865_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ligthart, M.\u00a0E., Neerincx, M.\u00a0A., & Hindriks, K.\u00a0V. (2022). Memory-based personalization for fostering a long-term child-robot relationship. In 2022 17th ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) (pp. 80\u201389). IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/HRI53351.2022.9889446"},{"key":"13865_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liles, K.\u00a0R., Bryant, D.\u00a0G., & Beer, J.\u00a0M. (2017). How can social robots motivate students to practice math? In Proceedings of the Companion of the 2017 ACM\/IEEE international conference on human-robot interaction (pp. 353\u2013354). ACM.","DOI":"10.1145\/3029798.3034814"},{"issue":"4","key":"13865_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3743692","volume":"14","author":"R Love","year":"2025","unstructured":"Love, R., Cohen, P. R., Venture, G., & Kuli\u0107, D. (2025). Adapting a teachable robot\u2019s dialog responses using reinforcement learning: Cross-cultural user study exploring effect on engagement. ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction, 14(4), 1\u201334.","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction"},{"key":"13865_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lubold, N., Walker, E., & Pon-Barry, H. (2016). Effects of voice-adaptation and social dialogue on perceptions of a robotic learning companion. In 2016 11th ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) (pp. 255\u2013262). IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/HRI.2016.7451760"},{"issue":"209\u20130015","key":"13865_CR49","first-page":"13","volume":"1","author":"O Mubin","year":"2013","unstructured":"Mubin, O., Stevens, C. J., Shahid, S., Al Mahmud, A., & Dong, J.-J. (2013). A review of the applicability of robots in education. Journal of Technology in Education and Learning, 1(209\u20130015), 13.","journal-title":"Journal of Technology in Education and Learning"},{"issue":"4","key":"13865_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1080\/00094056.2023.2232283","volume":"99","author":"MM Neumann","year":"2023","unstructured":"Neumann, M. M. (2023). Bringing social robots to preschool: Transformation or disruption? Childhood Education, 99(4), 62\u201365.","journal-title":"Childhood Education"},{"key":"13865_CR51","unstructured":"Nguyen, T.\u00a0D., Lam, C.\u00a0B., & Bruno, P. (2022). Is there a national teacher shortage? a systematic examination of reports of teacher shortages in the United States. Working Paper EdWorkingPaper No. 22-631, Annenberg Institute for School Reform at Brown University."},{"key":"13865_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2024.105186","volume":"225","author":"M Palioura","year":"2025","unstructured":"Palioura, M., & Sapounidis, T. (2025). Storytelling and educational robotics: A scoping review (2004\u20132024). Computers & Education, 225, Article 105186.","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"key":"13865_CR53","unstructured":"Ramachandran, A. & Scassellati, B. (2016). Long-term child-robot tutoring interactions: Lessons learned. In IEEE Ro-Man Workshop on Long-term Child-Robot Interaction, New York, August (vol.\u00a031)."},{"key":"13865_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saerbeck, M., Schut, T., Bartneck, C., & Janse, M.\u00a0D. (2010). Expressive robots in education: Varying the degree of social supportive behavior of a robotic tutor. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 1613\u20131622).","DOI":"10.1145\/1753326.1753567"},{"key":"13865_CR55","unstructured":"Sarkar, A. & Drosos, I. (2025). Vibe coding: Programming through conversation with artificial intelligence. arXiv:2506.23253"},{"key":"13865_CR56","unstructured":"Schmitt, J. & DeCourcy, K. (2022). The pandemic has exacerbated a long-standing national shortage of teachers. https:\/\/www.epi.org\/publication\/pandemic-teacher-shortage\/. Economic Policy Institute."},{"issue":"4","key":"13865_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.5539\/elt.v3n4p237","volume":"3","author":"K Shabani","year":"2010","unstructured":"Shabani, K., Khatib, M., & Ebadi, S. (2010). Vygotsky\u2019s zone of proximal development: Instructional implications and teachers\u2019 professional development. English Language Teaching, 3(4), 237\u2013248.","journal-title":"English Language Teaching"},{"key":"13865_CR58","unstructured":"Sievers, T. (2025). A humanoid social robot as a teaching assistant in the classroom. arXiv:2508.05646."},{"key":"13865_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2022.734955","volume":"9","author":"MH Smakman","year":"2022","unstructured":"Smakman, M. H., Konijn, E. A., & Vogt, P. A. (2022). Do robotic tutors compromise the social-emotional development of children? Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 9, Article 734955.","journal-title":"Frontiers in Robotics and AI"},{"key":"13865_CR60","volume":"3","author":"J Su","year":"2022","unstructured":"Su, J., & Yang, W. (2022). Artificial intelligence in early childhood education: A scoping review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 3, Article 100049.","journal-title":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence"},{"issue":"2","key":"13865_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2008.08.006","volume":"52","author":"T Teo","year":"2009","unstructured":"Teo, T. (2009). Modelling technology acceptance in education: A study of pre-service teachers. Computers & Education, 52(2), 302\u2013312.","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"key":"13865_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tozadore, D., Ertug, N., Chaker, Y., & Abderrahim, M. (2025). Robobuddy in the classroom: Exploring llm-powered social robots for storytelling in learning and integration activities. arXiv:2508.16706","DOI":"10.1109\/RO-MAN63969.2025.11217800"},{"key":"13865_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1409671","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2024.1409671","volume":"11","author":"DC Tozadore","year":"2024","unstructured":"Tozadore, D. C., & Romero, R. A. (2024). Multiuser design of an architecture for social robots in education: Teachers, students, and researchers perspectives. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 11, 1409671.","journal-title":"Frontiers in Robotics and AI"},{"issue":"4","key":"13865_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1080\/00461520.2011.611369","volume":"46","author":"K VanLehn","year":"2011","unstructured":"VanLehn, K. (2011). The relative effectiveness of human tutoring, intelligent tutoring systems, and other tutoring systems. Educational Psychologist, 46(4), 197\u2013221.","journal-title":"Educational Psychologist"},{"key":"13865_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vrins, A., Pruss, E., Prinsen, J., Ceccato, C., & Alimardani, M. (2022). Are you paying attention? the effect of embodied interaction with an adaptive robot tutor on user engagement and learning performance. In International conference on social robotics (pp. 135\u2013145). Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-24670-8_13"},{"key":"13865_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vrochidou, E., Najoua, A., Lytridis, C., Salonidis, M., Ferelis, V., & Papakostas, G.\u00a0A. (2018). Social robot nao as a self-regulating didactic mediator: A case study of teaching\/learning numeracy. In 2018 26th International conference on software, telecommunications and computer networks (SoftCOM) (pp. 1\u20135). IEEE.","DOI":"10.23919\/SOFTCOM.2018.8555764"},{"key":"13865_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Westlund, J.\u00a0K., Gordon, G., Spaulding, S., Lee, J.\u00a0J., Plummer, L., Martinez, M., Das, M., & Breazeal, C. (2016). Lessons from teachers on performing hri studies with young children in schools. In 2016 11th ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI), pp. 383\u2013390. IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/HRI.2016.7451776"},{"key":"13865_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. In press Psychonomic bulletin & review.","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03196322"},{"key":"13865_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.edurev.2021.100388","volume":"33","author":"H Woo","year":"2021","unstructured":"Woo, H., LeTendre, G. K., Pham-Shouse, T., & Xiong, Y. (2021). The use of social robots in classrooms: A review of field-based studies. Educational Research Review, 33, Article 100388.","journal-title":"Educational Research Review"},{"key":"13865_CR70","unstructured":"You, Z.-J., Shen, C.-Y., Chang, C.-W., Liu, B.-J., & Chen, G.-D. (2006). A robot as a teaching assistant in an english class. In Sixth IEEE international conference on advanced learning technologies (ICALT\u201906) (pp. 87\u201391). IEEE."}],"container-title":["Education and Information Technologies"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10639-025-13865-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10639-025-13865-2","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10639-025-13865-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T07:33:49Z","timestamp":1774251229000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s10639-025-13865-2"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["13865"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10639-025-13865-2","relation":{},"ISSN":["1360-2357","1573-7608"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1360-2357","type":"print"},{"value":"1573-7608","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]]},"assertion":[{"value":"3 July 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"3 December 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"26 December 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}},{"value":"This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was granted by the Institute Research Board of University of Maryland, Baltimore County (protocol number 938, approval date 6\/21\/2022)","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics Approval"}},{"value":"Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. For child participants both consent from parents or guardians and assent from the child were obtained.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent"}}]}}