{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,23]],"date-time":"2026-04-23T08:39:41Z","timestamp":1776933581373,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,5]],"date-time":"2025-07-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1751673600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,5]],"date-time":"2025-07-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1751673600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Ethics Inf Technol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-025-09844-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,4]],"date-time":"2025-07-04T23:19:55Z","timestamp":1751671195000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Of machines and men: Attributions of moral responsibility in AI-assisted warfare"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Philip","family":"Robbins","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"9844_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Alicke, M. D. (2000). Culpable control and the psychology of blame. Psychological Bulletin, 126(4), 556\u2013574. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/\/0033-2909.126.4.556","DOI":"10.1037\/\/0033-2909.126.4.556"},{"issue":"5","key":"9844_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2019.02.008","volume":"23","author":"YE Bigman","year":"2019","unstructured":"Bigman, Y. E., Waytz, A., Alterovitz, R., & Gray, K. (2019). Holding robots responsible: The elements of machine morality. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 23(5), 365\u2013368. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tics.2019.02.008","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"issue":"1","key":"9844_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-013-0138-3","volume":"28","author":"M Champagne","year":"2015","unstructured":"Champagne, M., & Tonkens, R. (2015). Bridging the responsibility gap in automated warfare. Philosophy & Technology, 28(1), 125\u2013137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13347-013-0138-3","journal-title":"Philosophy & Technology"},{"key":"9844_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1111\/phc3.70002","volume":"19","author":"M Da Silva","year":"2024","unstructured":"Da Silva, M. (2024). Responsibility gaps. Philosophy Compass, 19, 9\u201310. e70002","journal-title":"Philosophy Compass"},{"issue":"2","key":"9844_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-022-00519-1","volume":"35","author":"J Danaher","year":"2022","unstructured":"Danaher, J. (2022). Tragic choices and the virtue of techno-responsibility gaps. Philosophy & Technology, 35(2), 26. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13347-022-00519-1","journal-title":"Philosophy & Technology"},{"key":"9844_CR6","unstructured":"Dennett, D. C. (1997). When HAL kills, who\u2019s to blame? Computer ethics. In D. G. Stork (Ed.), HAL\u2019s legacy: 2001\u2019s computer as dream and reality (pp. 351\u2013365). MIT Press."},{"issue":"2","key":"9844_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03193146","volume":"39","author":"F Faul","year":"2007","unstructured":"Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175\u2013191. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/BF03193146","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"key":"9844_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1007\/s10506-017-9208-7","volume":"25","author":"J Hage","year":"2017","unstructured":"Hage, J. (2017). Theoretical foundations for the responsibility of autonomous agents. Artificial Intelligence and Law, 25, 255\u2013271. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10506-017-9208-7","journal-title":"Artificial Intelligence and Law"},{"issue":"1","key":"9844_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s11229-022-04001-5","volume":"201","author":"F Hindriks","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hindriks, F., & Veluwenkamp, H. (2023). The risks of autonomous machines: From responsibility gaps to control gaps. Synthese, 201(1), 21. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11229-022-04001-5","journal-title":"Synthese"},{"key":"9844_CR10","unstructured":"Human Rights Watch (2012). Losing humanity: The case against killer robots. https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/report\/2012\/11\/19\/losing-humanity\/case-against-killer-robots"},{"key":"9844_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kahn, P. H., Kanda, T., Ishiguro, H., Gill, B. T., Ruckert, J. H., Shen, S., Gary, H. E., Reichert, A. L., Freier, N. G., & Severson, R. L. (2012). Do people hold a humanoid robot morally accountable for the harm it causes? Proceedings of the Seventh Annual ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction, 33\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2157689.2157696","DOI":"10.1145\/2157689.2157696"},{"issue":"3","key":"9844_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-022-09643-0","volume":"24","author":"P K\u00f6nigs","year":"2022","unstructured":"K\u00f6nigs, P. (2022). Artificial intelligence and responsibility gaps: What is the problem? Ethics and Information Technology, 24(3), 36. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10676-022-09643-0","journal-title":"Ethics and Information Technology"},{"issue":"8","key":"9844_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13016","DOI":"10.1111\/phc3.13016","volume":"19","author":"DM Kovacs","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kovacs, D. M. (2023). Conventionalist accounts of personal identity over time. Philosophy Compass, 19(8), 13016.","journal-title":"Philosophy Compass"},{"issue":"4","key":"9844_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-021-00454-7","volume":"34","author":"C List","year":"2021","unstructured":"List, C. (2021). Group agency and artificial intelligence. Philosophy & Technology, 34(4), 1213\u20131242. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13347-021-00454-7","journal-title":"Philosophy & Technology"},{"issue":"2","key":"9844_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1080\/1047840X.2014.877340","volume":"25","author":"BF Malle","year":"2014","unstructured":"Malle, B. F., Guglielmo, S., & Monroe, A. E. (2014). A theory of blame. Psychological Inquiry, 25(2), 147\u2013186. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/1047840X.2014.877340","journal-title":"Psychological Inquiry"},{"key":"9844_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Malle, B. F., Scheutz, M., Arnold, T., Voiklis, J., & Cusimano, C. (2015). Sacrifice one for the good of many? People apply different moral norms to human and robot agents. Proceedings of the Tenth Annual ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction, 117\u2013124. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2696454.2696458","DOI":"10.1145\/2696454.2696458"},{"key":"9844_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Malle, B. F., Magar, S. T., & Scheutz, M. (2019). AI in the sky: How people morally evaluate human and machine decisions in a lethal strike dilemma. In M. I. Aldinhas Ferreira, J. Silva Sequeira, G. Singh Virk, M. O. Tokhi, & E. E. Kadar (Eds.), Robotics and Well-Being (Vol. 95, pp. 111\u2013133). Springer International Publishing. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-12524-0_11","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-12524-0_11"},{"issue":"3","key":"9844_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-004-3422-1","volume":"6","author":"A Matthias","year":"2004","unstructured":"Matthias, A. (2004). The responsibility gap: Ascribing responsibility for the actions of learning automata. Ethics and Information Technology, 6(3), 175\u2013183. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10676-004-3422-1","journal-title":"Ethics and Information Technology"},{"issue":"3","key":"9844_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1177\/1948550618755875","volume":"10","author":"RM McManus","year":"2019","unstructured":"McManus, R. M., & Rutchick, A. M. (2019). Autonomous vehicles and the attribution of moral responsibility. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10(3), 345\u2013352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1948550618755875","journal-title":"Social Psychological and Personality Science"},{"key":"9844_CR20","unstructured":"Mozur, P., & Satariano, A. (2024). July 2). AI begins ushering in an age of killer robots. The New York Times. https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2024\/07\/02\/technology\/ukraine-war-ai-weapons.html"},{"issue":"5\u20136","key":"9844_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1080\/07370024.2022.2080552","volume":"38","author":"SRR Nijssen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Nijssen, S. R. R., M\u00fcller, B. C. N., Bosse, T., & Paulus, M. (2023). Can you count on a calculator? The role of agency and affect in judgments of robots as moral agents. Human\u2013Computer Interaction, 38(5\u20136), 400\u2013416. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/07370024.2022.2080552","journal-title":"Human\u2013Computer Interaction"},{"key":"9844_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1007\/s10677-015-9563-y","volume":"18","author":"D Purves","year":"2015","unstructured":"Purves, D., Jenkins, R., & Strawser, B. J. (2015). Autonomous machines, moral judgment, and acting for the right reasons. Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, 18, 851\u2013872.","journal-title":"Ethical Theory and Moral Practice"},{"issue":"4","key":"9844_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1111\/japp.12274","volume":"35","author":"M Robillard","year":"2018","unstructured":"Robillard, M. (2018). No such thing as killer robots. Journal of Applied Philosophy, 35(4), 705\u2013717. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/japp.12274","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Philosophy"},{"issue":"2","key":"9844_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-018-9494-0","volume":"21","author":"A Sharkey","year":"2019","unstructured":"Sharkey, A. (2019). Autonomous weapons systems, killer robots and human dignity. Ethics and Information Technology, 21(2), 75\u201387. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10676-018-9494-0","journal-title":"Ethics and Information Technology"},{"issue":"3","key":"9844_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-020-09528-0","volume":"22","author":"M Skerker","year":"2020","unstructured":"Skerker, M., Purves, D., & Jenkins, R. (2020). Autonomous weapons systems and the moral equality of combatants. Ethics and Information Technology, 22(3), 197\u2013209. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10676-020-09528-0","journal-title":"Ethics and Information Technology"},{"issue":"1","key":"9844_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-5930.2007.00346.x","volume":"24","author":"R Sparrow","year":"2007","unstructured":"Sparrow, R. (2007). Killer robots. Journal of Applied Philosophy, 24(1), 62\u201377. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1468-5930.2007.00346.x","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Philosophy"},{"issue":"7","key":"9844_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e12872","DOI":"10.1111\/cogs.12872","volume":"44","author":"A Swiderska","year":"2020","unstructured":"Swiderska, A., & K\u00fcster, D. (2020). Robots as malevolent moral agents: Harmful behavior results in dehumanization, not anthropomorphism. Cognitive Science, 44(7), e12872. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/cogs.12872","journal-title":"Cognitive Science"},{"issue":"3","key":"9844_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-020-00414-7","volume":"34","author":"DW Tigard","year":"2021","unstructured":"Tigard, D. W. (2021). There is no techno-responsibility gap. Philosophy & Technology, 34(3), 589\u2013607. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13347-020-00414-7","journal-title":"Philosophy & Technology"},{"key":"9844_CR29","unstructured":"Walzer, M. (2015). Just and unjust wars: A moral argument with historical illustrations (5th ed.). Basic Books."},{"issue":"4","key":"9844_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-024-00485-1","volume":"30","author":"J Zeiser","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zeiser, J. (2024). Owning decisions: AI decision-support and the attributability-gap. Science and Engineering Ethics, 30(4), 27. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11948-024-00485-1","journal-title":"Science and Engineering Ethics"}],"container-title":["Ethics and Information Technology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10676-025-09844-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10676-025-09844-3\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10676-025-09844-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,19]],"date-time":"2025-09-19T05:45:29Z","timestamp":1758260729000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s10676-025-09844-3"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,5]]},"references-count":30,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["9844"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10676-025-09844-3","relation":{},"ISSN":["1388-1957","1572-8439"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1388-1957","type":"print"},{"value":"1572-8439","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,5]]},"assertion":[{"value":"5 July 2025","order":1,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The author declares no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"35"}}