{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T07:24:58Z","timestamp":1776324298039,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]],"date-time":"2025-03-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741564800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]],"date-time":"2025-03-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741564800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001711","name":"Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur F\u00f6rderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["407740_187246"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["407740_187246"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001711","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100030993","name":"Universit\u00e0 della Svizzera italiana","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100030993","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Tech Know Learn"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>In recent years, the emphasis on computational thinking (CT) has intensified as an effect of accelerated digitalisation. While most researchers are concentrating on defining CT and developing tools for its instruction and assessment, we focus on the characteristics of computational thinking problems (CTPs)- activities requiring CT to be solved-and how they influence the skills students can develop. In this paper, we present a comprehensive framework for systematically profiling CTPs by identifying specific components and characteristics, while establishing a link between these attributes and a structured catalogue of CT competencies. The purposes of this framework are (i) facilitating the analysis of existing CTPs to identify which abilities can be developed or measured based on their inherent characteristics, and (ii) guiding the design of new CTPs targeted at specific skills by outlining the necessary characteristics required for CT activation. To illustrate the framework functionalities, we begin by analysing prototypical activities in the literature, a process that leads to the definition of a taxonomy of CTPs across various domains, and we conclude with a case study on the design of a different version of one of these activities, the Cross Array Task (CAT), set in different cognitive environments. This approach allows an understanding of how CTPs in different contexts display unique and recurring characteristics that promote the development of distinct skills. In conclusion, this framework can inform the development of assessment tools, improve teacher training, and facilitate the analysis and comparison of existing CT activities, contributing to a deeper understanding of competency activation and guiding curriculum design in CT education.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10758-025-09833-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]],"date-time":"2025-03-10T18:21:36Z","timestamp":1741630896000},"page":"1073-1148","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["FADE-CTP: A Framework for the Analysis and Design of Educational Computational Thinking Problems"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"30","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2613-4467","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giorgia","family":"Adorni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5196-4630","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alberto","family":"Piatti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4322-7059","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Engin","family":"Bumbacher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6793-6258","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucio","family":"Negrini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8641-8704","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Mondada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7877-3041","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dorit","family":"Assaf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3215-1028","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Mangili","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Luca Maria","family":"Gambardella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"9833_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Adorni, G., & Piatti, A. (2024). The virtual CAT: A tool for algorithmic thinking assessment in Swiss compulsory education. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2408.01263","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2408.01263"},{"key":"9833_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chbr.2024.100466","volume":"15","author":"G Adorni","year":"2024","unstructured":"Adorni, G., Artico, I., Piatti, A., Lutz, E., Gambardella, L. M., Negrini, L., Mondada, F., & Assaf, D. (2024). Development of algorithmic thinking skills in k-12 education: A comparative study of unplugged and digital assessment instruments. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 15, 100466. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chbr.2024.100466","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior Reports"},{"key":"9833_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.softx.2024.101737","volume":"27","author":"G Adorni","year":"2024","unstructured":"Adorni, G., Piatti, S., & Karpenko, V. (2024). Virtual CAT: A multi-interface educational platform for algorithmic thinking assessment. SoftwareX, 27, 101737. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.softx.2024.101737","journal-title":"SoftwareX"},{"issue":"3","key":"9833_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1080\/02568543.2021.1981503","volume":"36","author":"J Ahn","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ahn, J., Sung, W., & Black, J. B. (2021). Unplugged debugging activities for developing young learners\u2019 debugging skills. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 36(3), 421\u2013437. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/02568543.2021.1981503","journal-title":"Journal of Research in Childhood Education"},{"key":"9833_CR5","unstructured":"Algorea, A. F. I. (2020). Ranger les billes. https:\/\/parcours.algorea.org\/contents\/4707-4702-1471479157476024035-1312565015631453321-1609762309306083784-4230985342204608\/"},{"issue":"3","key":"9833_CR6","first-page":"47","volume":"19","author":"C Angeli","year":"2016","unstructured":"Angeli, C., Voogt, J., Fluck, A., Webb, M., Cox, M., Malyn-Smith, J., & Zagami, J. (2016). A K-6 computational thinking curriculum framework: Implications for teacher knowledge. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 19(3), 47\u201357.","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Technology & Society"},{"key":"9833_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Assaf, D. & Pfeifer, R. (2011). Embedit \u2013 an open robotic kit for education. In Eurobot 2011 communications in computer and information science. (vol. 161, pp. 29\u201339). Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-642-21975-7_4","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-21975-7_4"},{"key":"9833_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Assaf, D., Betschart, S., Moser, A., Curtins, J., Steiner, M. & Walker, N. (2021). \u00abiMake-IT\u00bb: Invent, code, and shape your world! a workshop live stream from a science communication project where 5th grade students work in a makerspace on open-ended projects. In FabLearn Europe\/MakeEd 2021-an international conference on computing, design and making in education. (pp. 1\u20133). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3466725.3466748","DOI":"10.1145\/3466725.3466748"},{"key":"9833_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2015.10.008","volume":"75","author":"S Atmatzidou","year":"2016","unstructured":"Atmatzidou, S., & Demetriadis, S. (2016). Advancing students\u2019 computational thinking skills through educational robotics: A study on age and gender relevant differences. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 75, 661\u2013670. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.robot.2015.10.008","journal-title":"Robotics and Autonomous Systems"},{"key":"9833_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ball, T., Protzenko, J., Bishop, J., Moskal, M., De\u00a0Halleux, J., Braun, M., Hodges, S. & Riley, C. (2016). Microsoft touch develop and the BBC micro: bit. In 2016 IEEE\/ACM 38th International Conference on Software Engineering Companion (ICSE-C), IEEE. (pp. 637\u2013640). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2889160.2889179","DOI":"10.1145\/2889160.2889179"},{"key":"9833_CR11","unstructured":"Barbero, M. & G\u00f3mez-Chac\u00f3n, I. M. (2018). Analysing regressive reasoning at university level. In INDRUM 2018. https:\/\/hal.science\/INDRUM2018\/public\/Indrum2018Proceedings.pdf#page=206"},{"key":"9833_CR12","unstructured":"Barbero, M. (2020). Backward reasoning in problem-solving situations: a multidimensional model. PhD thesis, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Facultad de Ciencias Matem\u00e1ticas. https:\/\/repository.supsi.ch\/13596\/1\/Thesis"},{"issue":"1","key":"9833_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1145\/1929887.1929905","volume":"2","author":"V Barr","year":"2011","unstructured":"Barr, V., & Stephenson, C. (2011). Bringing computational thinking to k-12: What is involved and what is the role of the computer science education community? ACM Inroads, 2(1), 48\u201354. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/1929887.1929905","journal-title":"ACM Inroads"},{"key":"9833_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bell, T. & Vahrenhold, J. (2018). CS unplugged-how is it used, and does it work? Springer International Publishing (pp. 497\u2013521). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-98355-4_29","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-98355-4_29"},{"key":"9833_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bell, G. I. (2007). Triangular peg solitaire unlimited. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/ARXIV.0711.0486","DOI":"10.48550\/ARXIV.0711.0486"},{"key":"9833_CR16","unstructured":"Bell, T., Alexander, J., Freeman, I. & Grimley, M. (2009). Computer science unplugged: school students doing real computing without computers. The New Zealand Journal of Applied Computing and Information Technology. 13. https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/266882704_Computer_Science_Unplugged_school_students_doing_real_computing_without_computers"},{"issue":"2","key":"9833_CR17","first-page":"3","volume":"11","author":"GI Bell","year":"2008","unstructured":"Bell, G. I. (2008). Solving triangular peg solitaire. Journal of Integer Sequences, 11(2), 3.","journal-title":"Journal of Integer Sequences"},{"key":"9833_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berlekamp, E. R., Conway, J. H. & Guy, R. K. (2004). Winning ways for your mathematical plays. (Vol. 4) New York: AK Peters\/CRC Press. https:\/\/bobson.ludost.net\/copycrime\/Winning","DOI":"10.1201\/9780429487309"},{"key":"9833_CR19","unstructured":"Bers, M. U. & Horn, M. S. (2010). Tangible programming in early childhood. High-tech tots: Childhood in a digital world. (vol. 49, pp. 49\u201370). https:\/\/sites.bc.edu\/devtech\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2018\/02\/Bers-Horn_May1809.pdf"},{"key":"9833_CR20","unstructured":"Bloom, B. S. et\u00a0al. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives."},{"key":"9833_CR21","unstructured":"Bocconi, S., Chioccariello, A., Dettori, G., Ferrari, A., Engelhardt, K., Kampylis, P. & Punie, Y. (2016). Developing computational thinking: Approaches and orientations in k-12 education. In EdMedia+ Innovate Learning, Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). (pp. 13\u201318). https:\/\/www.learntechlib.org\/p\/172925\/"},{"key":"9833_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bocconi, S., Chioccariello, A., Kampylis, P., Dagien\u0117, V., Wastiau, P., Engelhardt, K., Earp, J., Horvath, M. A., Jasut\u0117, E., Malagoli, C., et\u00a0al. (2022). Reviewing Computational Thinking in Compulsory Education. Tech. rep., Joint Research Centre (Seville site). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2760\/126955","DOI":"10.2760\/126955"},{"key":"9833_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Brackmann, C. P. & Rom\u00e1n-Gonz\u00e1lez, M., Robles, G., Moreno-Le\u00f3n, J., Casali, A & Barone, D. (2017). Development of computational thinking skills through unplugged activities in primary school. In Proceedings of the 12th workshop on primary and secondary computing education, association for computing machinery, New York, NY, USA, WiPSCE \u201917. (pp. 65\u201372) https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3137065.3137069","DOI":"10.1145\/3137065.3137069"},{"key":"9833_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bravo, F. A., Gonz\u00e1lez, A. M. & Gonz\u00e1lez, E. (2017). A review of intuitive robot programming environments for educational purposes. In 2017 IEEE 3rd Colombian Conference on Automatic Control (CCAC), IEEE. (pp. 1\u20136). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/CCAC.2017.8276396","DOI":"10.1109\/CCAC.2017.8276396"},{"key":"9833_CR25","unstructured":"Brennan, K. & Resnick, M. (2012). New frameworks for studying and assessing the development of computational thinking. In Proceedings of the 2012 annual meeting of the American educational research association, Vancouver, Canada. (Vol. 1, pp. 25). https:\/\/web.media.mit.edu\/~kbrennan\/files\/Brennan_Resnick_AERA2012_CT.pdf"},{"key":"9833_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bryndov\u00e1. L. & Mali\u0161\u016f, P. (2020). Assessing the current level of the computational thinking within the primary and lower secondary school students using educational robotics tasks. In 2020 The 4th international conference on education and multimedia technology, association for computing machinery, New York, NY, USA, ICEMT 2020. (pp. 239\u2013243). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3416797.3416819","DOI":"10.1145\/3416797.3416819"},{"key":"9833_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chevalier, M., Giang, C., Piatti, A., & Mondada, F. (2020). Fostering computational thinking through educational robotics: a model for creative computational problem solving (CCPS). International Journal of STEM Education,39,. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40594-020-00238-z","DOI":"10.1186\/s40594-020-00238-z"},{"key":"9833_CR28","unstructured":"Codeorg. (2015a). Graph paper programming. https:\/\/code.org\/curriculum\/course2\/1\/Teacher"},{"key":"9833_CR29","unstructured":"Codeorg. (2015b). Instructor handbook-code studio lesson plans for courses one, two, and three. https:\/\/code.org\/curriculum\/docs\/k-5\/complete.pdf"},{"issue":"3","key":"9833_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1145\/2723671","volume":"58","author":"TJ Cortina","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cortina, T. J. (2015). Reaching a broader population of students through \u201cunplugged\u2019\u2019 activities. Communications of the ACM, 58(3), 25\u201327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2723671","journal-title":"Communications of the ACM"},{"key":"9833_CR31","unstructured":"Csizmadia, A., Curzon, P., Dorling, M., Humphreys, S., Ng, T., Selby, C. & Woollard, J. (2015). Computational thinking-a guide for teachers. Tech. rep., Computing at School. https:\/\/eprints.soton.ac.uk\/424545\/"},{"issue":"5","key":"9833_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.1177\/0735633120979930","volume":"59","author":"Z Cui","year":"2021","unstructured":"Cui, Z., & Ng, O. L. (2021). The interplay between mathematical and computational thinking in primary school students\u2019 mathematical problem-solving within a programming environment. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 59(5), 988\u20131012. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0735633120979930","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Computing Research"},{"key":"9833_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2020.103832","volume":"150","author":"J Del Olmo-Mu\u00f1oz","year":"2020","unstructured":"Del Olmo-Mu\u00f1oz, J., C\u00f3zar-Guti\u00e9rrez, R., & Gonz\u00e1lez-Calero, J. A. (2020). Computational thinking through unplugged activities in early years of primary education. Computers & Education, 150, 103832. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2020.103832","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"issue":"6","key":"9833_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1002\/sce.21188","volume":"99","author":"MJ Ford","year":"2015","unstructured":"Ford, M. J. (2015). Educational implications of choosing \u201cpractice\u2019\u2019 to describe science in the next generation science standards. Science Education, 99(6), 1041\u20131048. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/sce.21188","journal-title":"Science Education"},{"key":"9833_CR35","unstructured":"France-IOI. (2004). France-IOI. http:\/\/www.france-ioi.org"},{"key":"9833_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gouws. L. A., Bradshaw, K. & Wentworth, P. (2013). Computational thinking in educational activities: an evaluation of the educational game light-bot. In Proceedings of the 18th ACM conference on Innovation and technology in computer science education, ACM, ITiCSE \u201913. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2462476.2466518","DOI":"10.1145\/2462476.2466518"},{"key":"9833_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.5040\/9781350057142.ch-003","volume":"19","author":"S Grover","year":"2017","unstructured":"Grover, S., & Pea, R. (2017). Computational Thinking: A Competency Whose Time Has Come. Computer science education: Perspectives on teaching and learning in school, 19, 1257\u20131258. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5040\/9781350057142.ch-003","journal-title":"Computer science education: Perspectives on teaching and learning in school"},{"issue":"3","key":"9833_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1007\/s13164-013-0148-1","volume":"4","author":"R Heersmink","year":"2013","unstructured":"Heersmink, R. (2013). A taxonomy of cognitive artifacts: Function, information, and categories. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 4(3), 465\u2013481. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13164-013-0148-1","journal-title":"Review of Philosophy and Psychology"},{"issue":"1","key":"9833_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1145\/3381887","volume":"11","author":"Y Kafai","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kafai, Y., Proctor, C., & Lui, D. (2020). From theory bias to theory dialogue: Embracing cognitive, situated, and critical framings of computational thinking in k-12 cs education. ACM Inroads, 11(1), 44\u201353. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3381887","journal-title":"ACM Inroads"},{"key":"9833_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2015.05.047","volume":"52","author":"F Kalelio\u011flu","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kalelio\u011flu, F. (2015). A new way of teaching programming skills to K-12 students: Code.org. Computers in Human Behavior, 52, 200\u2013210. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chb.2015.05.047","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"key":"9833_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ko, A. J. & Myers, B. A. (2004). Designing the whyline: A debugging interface for asking questions about program behavior. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems, ACM, CHI04. (pp. 151\u2013158). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/985692.985712","DOI":"10.1145\/985692.985712"},{"issue":"6","key":"9833_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1436","DOI":"10.1177\/07356331211057819","volume":"60","author":"M Lafuente Mart\u00ednez","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lafuente Mart\u00ednez, M., L\u00e9v\u00eaque, O., Ben\u00edtez, I., Hardebolle, C., & Zufferey, J. D. (2022). Assessing computational thinking: Development and validation of the algorithmic thinking test for adults. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 60(6), 1436\u20131463. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/07356331211057819","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Computing Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"9833_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcci.2014.06.003","volume":"2","author":"TY Lee","year":"2014","unstructured":"Lee, T. Y., Mauriello, M. L., Ahn, J., & Bederson, B. B. (2014). Ctarcade: Computational thinking with games in school age children. International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 2(1), 26\u201333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijcci.2014.06.003","journal-title":"International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction"},{"issue":"1","key":"9833_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/08993408.2017.1308651","volume":"27","author":"Z Liu","year":"2017","unstructured":"Liu, Z., Zhi, R., Hicks, A., & Barnes, T. (2017). Understanding problem solving behavior of 6\u20138 graders in a debugging game. Computer Science Education, 27(1), 1\u201329. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/08993408.2017.1308651","journal-title":"Computer Science Education"},{"key":"9833_CR45","volume-title":"Coding with Blockly","author":"A Lovett","year":"2017","unstructured":"Lovett, A. (2017). Coding with Blockly. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Cherry Lake Publishing."},{"key":"9833_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lu, J. J. & Fletcher, G. H. (2009). Thinking about computational thinking. In Proceedings of the 40th ACM technical symposium on Computer science education, ACM, SIGCSE09. (pp. 260\u2013264.) https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/1508865.1508959","DOI":"10.1145\/1508865.1508959"},{"issue":"2","key":"9833_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2010.2042722","volume":"16","author":"S Magnenat","year":"2011","unstructured":"Magnenat, S., R\u00e9tornaz, P., Bonani, M., Longchamp, V., & Mondada, F. (2011). Aseba: A modular architecture for event-based control of complex robots. IEEE\/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, 16(2), 321\u2013329. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TMECH.2010.2042722","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics"},{"key":"9833_CR48","unstructured":"Makecode. (2016). Microsoft MakeCode for Micro:bit. https:\/\/makecode.microbit.org"},{"issue":"2","key":"9833_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1080\/08993400802114581","volume":"18","author":"R McCauley","year":"2008","unstructured":"McCauley, R., Fitzgerald, S., Lewandowski, G., Murphy, L., Simon, B., Thomas, L., & Zander, C. (2008). Debugging: A review of the literature from an educational perspective. Computer Science Education, 18(2), 67\u201392. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/08993400802114581","journal-title":"Computer Science Education"},{"key":"9833_CR50","unstructured":"Microbit. (2016). BBC\u2019s Make It Digital initiative, Micro:bit Educational Foundation. https:\/\/microbit.org"},{"issue":"5","key":"9833_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"172988141665816","DOI":"10.1177\/1729881416658165","volume":"13","author":"F Mondada","year":"2016","unstructured":"Mondada, F., Bonnet, E., Davrajh, S., Johal, W., & Stopforth, R. (2016). R2t2: Robotics to integrate educational efforts in South Africa and Europe. International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, 13(5), 1729881416658165. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1729881416658165","journal-title":"International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems"},{"key":"9833_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Mussati, A., Giang, C., Piatti, A. & Mondada, F. (2019). A tangible programming language for the educational robot thymio. In 2019 10th International conference on information, intelligence, systems and applications (IISA), IEEE. (pp. 1\u20134). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/IISA.2019.8900743","DOI":"10.1109\/IISA.2019.8900743"},{"issue":"2","key":"9833_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1007\/s40692-018-0101-5","volume":"5","author":"M Noone","year":"2018","unstructured":"Noone, M., & Mooney, A. (2018). Visual and textual programming languages: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Computers in Education, 5(2), 149\u2013174.","journal-title":"Journal of Computers in Education"},{"issue":"2","key":"9833_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/s10972-014-9384-1","volume":"25","author":"J Osborne","year":"2014","unstructured":"Osborne, J. (2014). Teaching scientific practices: Meeting the challenge of change. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 25(2), 177\u2013196. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10972-014-9384-1","journal-title":"Journal of Science Teacher Education"},{"key":"9833_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chbr.2021.100166","volume":"5","author":"A Piatti","year":"2022","unstructured":"Piatti, A., Adorni, G., El-Hamamsy, L., Negrini, L., Assaf, D., Gambardella, L., & Mondada, F. (2022). The CT-cube: A framework for the design and the assessment of computational thinking activities. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 5, 100166. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chbr.2021.100166","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior Reports"},{"key":"9833_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Relkin, E. & Umaschi\u00a0Bers, M. (2019). Designing an assessment of computational thinking abilities for young children. Routledge. (pp. 83\u201398). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9780429453755-5","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429453755-5"},{"key":"9833_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Relkin, E., Bers, M. (2021). Techcheck-k: A measure of computational thinking for kindergarten children. In 2021 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON). IEEE. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/educon46332.2021.9453926","DOI":"10.1109\/educon46332.2021.9453926"},{"issue":"4","key":"9833_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1007\/s10956-020-09831-x","volume":"29","author":"E Relkin","year":"2020","unstructured":"Relkin, E., de Ruiter, L., & Bers, M. U. (2020). Techcheck: Development and validation of an unplugged assessment of computational thinking in early childhood education. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 29(4), 482\u2013498. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10956-020-09831-x","journal-title":"Journal of Science Education and Technology"},{"key":"9833_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Riedo, F., Chevalier, M., Magnenat, S. & Mondada, F. (2013). Thymio II, a robot that grows wiser with children. In 2013 IEEE workshop on advanced robotics and its social impacts, IEEE. (pp. 187\u2013193). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/arso.2013.6705527","DOI":"10.1109\/arso.2013.6705527"},{"issue":"4","key":"9833_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1109\/TE.2022.3159765","volume":"65","author":"S Rijo-Garc\u00eda","year":"2022","unstructured":"Rijo-Garc\u00eda, S., Segredo, E., & Le\u00f3n, C. (2022). Computational thinking and user interfaces: A systematic review. IEEE Transactions on Education, 65(4), 647\u2013656. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TE.2022.3159765","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Education"},{"key":"9833_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Rodriguez, B., Rader, C. & Camp, T. (2016). Using student performance to assess cs unplugged activities in a classroom environment. In Proceedings of the 2016 ACM Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education, ACM, ITiCSE \u201916., (pp. 95\u2013100). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2899415.2899465","DOI":"10.1145\/2899415.2899465"},{"issue":"3","key":"9833_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2019.1612448","volume":"28","author":"JA Rodr\u00edguez-Mart\u00ednez","year":"2020","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez-Mart\u00ednez, J. A., Gonz\u00e1lez-Calero, J. A., & S\u00e1ez-L\u00f3pez, J. M. (2020). Computational thinking and mathematics using scratch: An experiment with sixth-grade students. Interactive Learning Environments, 28(3), 316\u2013327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10494820.2019.1612448","journal-title":"Interactive Learning Environments"},{"key":"9833_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Rom\u00e1n-Gonz\u00e1lez, M. (2015). Computational thinking test: Design guidelines and content validation. In EDULEARN15 Proceedings, IATED. (pp. 2436\u20132444). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/EDUCON45650.2020.9125368","DOI":"10.1109\/EDUCON45650.2020.9125368"},{"key":"9833_CR64","unstructured":"Rom\u00e1n-Gonz\u00e1lez, M., Moreno-Le\u00f3n, J. & Robles, G. (2017a). Complementary tools for computational thinking assessment. In S. C. Kong, J. Sheldon, and K. Y. Li (Eds.), Proceedings of International Conference on Computational Thinking Education (CTE 2017). The Education University of Hong Kong. (pp. 154\u2013159). https:\/\/www.eduhk.hk\/cte2017\/doc\/CTE2017"},{"key":"9833_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2016.08.047","volume":"72","author":"M Rom\u00e1n-Gonz\u00e1lez","year":"2017","unstructured":"Rom\u00e1n-Gonz\u00e1lez, M., P\u00e9rez-Gonz\u00e1lez, J. C., & Jim\u00e9nez-Fern\u00e1ndez, C. (2017). Which cognitive abilities underlie computational thinking? Criterion validity of the computational thinking test. Computers in human behavior., 72, 678\u2013691. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chb.2016.08.047","journal-title":"Computers in human behavior."},{"key":"9833_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcci.2018.06.004","volume":"18","author":"M Rom\u00e1n-Gonz\u00e1lez","year":"2018","unstructured":"Rom\u00e1n-Gonz\u00e1lez, M., P\u00e9rez-Gonz\u00e1lez, J. C., Moreno-Le\u00f3n, J., & Robles, G. (2018). Can computational talent be detected? Predictive validity of the computational thinking test. International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 18, 47\u201358. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijcci.2018.06.004","journal-title":"International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction"},{"issue":"5","key":"9833_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1002\/wcs.1242","volume":"4","author":"WM Roth","year":"2013","unstructured":"Roth, W. M., & Jornet, A. (2013). Situated cognition. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 4(5), 463\u2013478. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/wcs.1242","journal-title":"Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science"},{"key":"9833_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2021.106707","volume":"120","author":"E Rowe","year":"2021","unstructured":"Rowe, E., Almeda, M. V., Asbell-Clarke, J., Scruggs, R., Baker, R., Bardar, E., & Gasca, S. (2021). Assessing implicit computational thinking in Zoombinis puzzle gameplay. Computers in Human Behavior, 120, 106707. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chb.2021.106707","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"key":"9833_CR69","unstructured":"Sar\u0131tepeci, M. & Durak, H. (2017). Analyzing the effect of block and robotic coding activities on computational thinking in programming education. Educational research and practice. (pp. 490\u2013501). https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/316890358_Analyzing_the_Effect_of_Block_and_Robotic_Coding_Activities_on_Computational_Thinking_in_Programming_Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"9833_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1007\/s40299-019-00478-w","volume":"29","author":"A Saxena","year":"2019","unstructured":"Saxena, A., Lo, C. K., Hew, K. F., & Wong, G. K. W. (2019). Designing unplugged and plugged activities to cultivate computational thinking: An exploratory study in early childhood education. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 29(1), 55\u201366. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40299-019-00478-w","journal-title":"The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher"},{"key":"9833_CR71","unstructured":"Selby, C. & Woollard, J. (2013). Computational thinking: The developing definition. Tech. rep., University of Southampto. https:\/\/eprints.soton.ac.uk\/356481\/"},{"key":"9833_CR72","unstructured":"Selby, C. C. (2014). How can the teaching of programming be used to enhance computational thinking skills? PhD thesis, University of Southampton. http:\/\/eprints.soton.ac.uk\/id\/eprint\/366256"},{"key":"9833_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Shin, J., Siegwart, R. & Magnenat, S .(2014). Visual programming language for Thymio II robot. In Conference on interaction design and children (IDC\u201914), ETH Z\u00fcrich. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3929\/ethz-a-010144554","DOI":"10.3929\/ethz-a-010144554"},{"key":"9833_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.edurev.2017.09.003","volume":"22","author":"VJ Shute","year":"2017","unstructured":"Shute, V. J., Sun, C., & Asbell-Clarke, J. (2017). Demystifying computational thinking. Educational Research Review, 22, 142\u2013158. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.edurev.2017.09.003","journal-title":"Educational Research Review"},{"key":"9833_CR75","unstructured":"Studiocodeorg. (2020a). Angry birds hitting the green pig maze. https:\/\/studio.code.org\/hoc\/1"},{"key":"9833_CR76","unstructured":"Studiocodeorg. (2020b). Classic Maze. https:\/\/studio.code.org\/s\/hourofcode"},{"key":"9833_CR77","unstructured":"Studiocodeorg. (2020c). Plants vs Zombies maze. https:\/\/studio.code.org\/hoc\/12"},{"key":"9833_CR78","unstructured":"Tall, D. (2006). A Theory of Mathematical Growth Through Embodiment, Symbolism and Proof. Annales de Didactique et de Sciences Cognitives. (vol. 11, pp. 195 \u2013 215). https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:17570154"},{"key":"9833_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Tall, D. (2013). How humans learn to think mathematically: Exploring the three worlds of mathematics. Cambridge University Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/CBO9781139565202","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139565202"},{"key":"9833_CR80","unstructured":"Tall, D. (2020). Making sense of mathematical thinking over the long term: The framework of three worlds of mathematics and new developments. MINTUS: Beitr\u00e4ge zur mathematischen, naturwissenschaftlichen und technischen Bildung Wiesbaden: Springer. https:\/\/homepages.warwick.ac.uk\/staff\/David.Tall\/pdfs\/dot2020a-3worlds-extension.pdf"},{"key":"9833_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Thalheim, B. (2000). The database design process. In Entity-relationship modeling. Springer. (pp. 13\u201328). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-662-04058-4_2","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-04058-4_2"},{"key":"9833_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2020.104083","volume":"162","author":"C Tikva","year":"2021","unstructured":"Tikva, C., & Tambouris, E. (2021). Mapping computational thinking through programming in K-12 education: A conceptual model based on a systematic literature Review. Computers & Education, 162, 104083. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2020.104083","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"key":"9833_CR83","unstructured":"Tsarava, K., Moeller, K., Pinkwart, N., Butz, M., Trautwein, U. & Ninaus, M. (2017). Training computational thinking: Game-based unplugged and plugged-in activities in primary school. In European conference on games based learning, Academic conferences international limited. (pp. 687\u2013695). https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/320491120_Training_Computational_Thinking_Game-Based_Unplugged_and_Plugged-in_Activities_in_Primary_School"},{"issue":"3","key":"9833_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1007\/s40692-023-00284-w","volume":"11","author":"VVV Varghese","year":"2023","unstructured":"Varghese, V. V. V., & Renumol, V. G. (2023). Video games for assessing computational thinking: A systematic literature review. Journal of Computers in Education, 11(3), 921\u2013966. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40692-023-00284-w","journal-title":"Journal of Computers in Education"},{"issue":"3","key":"9833_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-022-10093-0","volume":"70","author":"J Wang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wang, J., Zhang, Y., Hung, C. Y., Wang, Q., & Zheng, Y. (2022). Exploring the characteristics of an optimal design of non-programming plugged learning for developing primary school students\u2019 computational thinking in mathematics. Educational technology research and development, 70(3), 849\u2013880. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11423-022-10093-0","journal-title":"Educational technology research and development"},{"issue":"1","key":"9833_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/s10956-015-9581-5","volume":"25","author":"D Weintrop","year":"2016","unstructured":"Weintrop, D., Beheshti, E., Horn, M., Orton, K., Jona, K., Trouille, L., & Wilensky, U. (2016). Defining computational thinking for mathematics and science classrooms. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 25(1), 127\u2013147. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10956-015-9581-5","journal-title":"Journal of Science Education and Technology"},{"issue":"2","key":"9833_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1080\/08993408.2021.1918380","volume":"31","author":"D Weintrop","year":"2021","unstructured":"Weintrop, D., Rutstein, D. W., Bienkowski, M., & McGee, S. (2021). Assessing computational thinking: An overview of the field. Computer Science Education, 31(2), 113\u2013116. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/08993408.2021.1918380","journal-title":"Computer Science Education"},{"issue":"3","key":"9833_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1145\/1118178.1118215","volume":"49","author":"JM Wing","year":"2006","unstructured":"Wing, J. M. (2006). Computational thinking. Communications of the ACM, 49(3), 33\u201335. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/1118178.1118215","journal-title":"Communications of the ACM"},{"key":"9833_CR88","unstructured":"Wing, J. M. (2014). Computational thinking benefits society. In 40th anniversary blog of social issues in computing 2014 (pp. 26). http:\/\/socialissues.cs.toronto.edu\/index.html?p=279.html"},{"key":"9833_CR90","first-page":"20","volume":"6","author":"J Wing","year":"2011","unstructured":"Wing, J. (2011). Research notebook: Computational thinking-what and why. The link magazine, 6, 20\u201323.","journal-title":"The link magazine"},{"key":"9833_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wohl, B., Porter, B. & Clinch, S. (2015). Teaching computer science to 5-7 year-olds: An initial study with scratch, cubelets and unplugged computing. In Proceedings of the workshop in primary and secondary computing education, ACM, WiPSCE \u201915.(pp. 55\u201360). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2818314.2818340","DOI":"10.1145\/2818314.2818340"},{"key":"9833_CR92","unstructured":"Zoombinis. (2021). Zoombinis. https:\/\/www.terc.edu\/zoombinis\/about\/"}],"container-title":["Technology, Knowledge and Learning"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10758-025-09833-x.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10758-025-09833-x\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10758-025-09833-x.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,24]],"date-time":"2025-05-24T03:59:34Z","timestamp":1748059174000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s10758-025-09833-x"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]]},"references-count":92,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["9833"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10758-025-09833-x","relation":{},"ISSN":["2211-1662","2211-1670"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2211-1662","type":"print"},{"value":"2211-1670","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]]},"assertion":[{"value":"13 February 2025","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"10 March 2025","order":2,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no Conflict of interest.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}]}}