{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T02:55:45Z","timestamp":1768272945468,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,1]],"date-time":"2023-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1677628800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,1]],"date-time":"2023-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1677628800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Minds & Machines"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s11023-023-09627-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,26]],"date-time":"2023-03-26T22:39:44Z","timestamp":1679870384000},"page":"251-260","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Autonomous Force Beyond Armed Conflict"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"33","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9241-3037","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexander","family":"Blanchard","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"9627_CR1","unstructured":"Abney, K. (2013). \u2018Autonomous Robots and The Future of Just War Theory\u2019. In Routledge Handbook of Ethics and War: Just War Theory in The Twentieth-First Century, edited by Fritz Allhoff, Nicholas G. Evans, and Adam Henschke. London."},{"key":"9627_CR2","unstructured":"Amnesty International. (2015). Autonomous Weapons Systems: five Key Human Rights Issues for consideration. ACT 30\/1401\/2015. London: Amnesty International Publications."},{"key":"9627_CR3","unstructured":"Asaro, P. (2011). \u2018Peter Asaro: Military Robots and Just War Theory\u2019. Federal Ministry of Defence (Austria). https:\/\/www.bmlv.org\/pdf_pool\/publikationen\/20101105_et_ethical_and_legal_aspects_of_unmanned_systems_asaro.pdf."},{"key":"9627_CR4","unstructured":"Balko, R. (2021). Rise of the Warrior cop: the militarization of America\u2019s Police Forces. New York: Public Affairs."},{"key":"9627_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Birnbacher, D. (2016). \u2018Are Autonomous Weapons Systems a Threat to Human Dignity?\u2019 In Autonomous Weapons Systems: Law, Ethics, Policy, edited by Claus Kre\u03b2, Hin-Yan Liu, Nehal Bhuta, Robin Gei\u03b2, and Susanne Beck, 105\u201321. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/CBO9781316597873.005.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781316597873.005"},{"key":"9627_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blanchard, A. and Mariarosaria, T.\u00a0(2022a). \u2018Predictability, Distinction & Due Care in the Use of Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems\u2019. SSRN Electronic Journal. http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.4099394","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4099394"},{"key":"9627_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Blanchard, A. and Mariarosaria, T. (2022b).\u00a0\u2018Autonomous Weapon Systems and Jus Ad Bellum\u2019. AI & SOCIETY, March. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-022-01425-y","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-022-01425-y"},{"key":"9627_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blanchard, A. and Mariarosaria, T. (2023). \u2018Jus in Bello Necessity, the Requirement of Minimal Force, and Autonomous Weapon Systems\u2019. Journal of Military Ethics.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4100042"},{"key":"9627_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bode, I., and Hendrik Hueless (2022). Autonomous Weapons Systems and International norms. Montreal: McGill-Queen\u2019s University Press.","DOI":"10.1515\/9780228009245"},{"key":"9627_CR10","unstructured":"Boulanin, V., & Bruun, L., and Netta Goussac (2021). Autonomous Weapon Systems and International Humanitarian Law. Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute."},{"key":"9627_CR11","unstructured":"Butler, J. (2020). The force of nonviolence: an Ethico-Political bind. London: Verso."},{"key":"9627_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Champagne, M., & Tonkens, R. (2015). Bridging the responsibility gap in Automated Warfare. Philosophy & Technology, 28(1), 125\u2013137.","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-013-0138-3"},{"key":"9627_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chengeta, T. (2016). Measuring Autonomous Weapon Systems against International Humanitarian Law Rules. Journal of Law & Cyber Warfare, 5(1), 66\u2013146.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.2755184"},{"key":"9627_CR14","unstructured":"Cottier, D. (2022). Systems (LAWS) and Their Necessary Apprehension through European Human Rights Law\u2019. Provisional Report. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly. \u2018Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights: Emergence of Lethal Autonomous Weapons."},{"key":"9627_CR15","unstructured":"Department of Defense (2012). \u2018Directive 3000.09 \u201cAutonomy in Weapons Systems\u201d\u2019. Department of Defense. https:\/\/www.esd.whs.mil\/Portals\/54\/Documents\/DD\/issuances\/dodd\/300009p.pdf."},{"key":"9627_CR16","unstructured":"Docherty, B. (2014). Shaking the Foundations: the Human Rights Implications of Killer Robots. Washington DC: Human Rights Watch."},{"key":"9627_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Enemark, C. (2021). Armed Drones and ethical policing: risk, perception, and the Tele-Present Officer. Criminal Justice Ethics, 40(2), 124\u2013144. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/0731129X.2021.1943844.","DOI":"10.1080\/0731129X.2021.1943844"},{"key":"9627_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Finlay, C. J. (2020). \u2018Beyond the Killing Paradigm (Part of a Critical Exchange: How and Why to Do Just War Theory)\u2019. Contemporary Political Theory, November. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1057\/s41296-020-00453-x.","DOI":"10.1057\/s41296-020-00453-x"},{"key":"9627_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gerdes, A. (2018). Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems and responsibility gaps. Philosophy Study, 8(5), 231\u2013239.","DOI":"10.17265\/2159-5313\/2018.05.004"},{"key":"9627_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grut, C. (2013). The challenge of Autonomous Lethal Robotics to International Humanitarian Law. Journal of Conflict and Security Law, 18(1), 5\u201323.","DOI":"10.1093\/jcsl\/krt002"},{"key":"9627_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gunkel, D. J. (2020). Mind the gap: responsible Robotics and the problem of responsibility. Ethics and Information Technology, 22(4), 307\u2013320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10676-017-9428-2.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-017-9428-2"},{"key":"9627_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Heyns, C. (2013). \u2018Report of the Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions\u2019. United Nations General Assembly. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1163\/2210-7975_HRD-9970-2016149.","DOI":"10.1163\/2210-7975_HRD-9970-2016149"},{"key":"9627_CR23","unstructured":"Heyns, C. and Bhuta, N. (Ed.). (2016a). Susanne Beck, Robin Gei\u00df, Hin-Yan Liu, and Claus Kre\u00df. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"9627_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heyns, C. (2016b). \u2018Human Rights and the Use of Autonomous Weapons Systems (AWS) During Domestic Law Enforcement\u2019. Human Rights Quarterly 38 (2): 350\u201378.","DOI":"10.1353\/hrq.2016.0034"},{"key":"9627_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Himmelreich, J. (2019). Responsibility for Killer Robots. Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, 22(3), 731\u2013747. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10677-019-10007-9.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10677-019-10007-9"},{"key":"9627_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Holland Michel, A. (2020). \u2018The Black Box, Unlocked: Predictability and Understandability in Military AI\u2019. United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.37559\/SecTec\/20\/AI1.","DOI":"10.37559\/SecTec\/20\/AI1"},{"key":"9627_CR27","unstructured":"ICRC (2004). \u2018International Committee of the Red Cross Advisory Service on International Humanitarian Law: What Is International Humanitarian Law?\u2019 https:\/\/www.icrc.org\/en\/doc\/assets\/files\/other\/what_is_ihl.pdf."},{"key":"9627_CR28","unstructured":"ICRC (2021). \u2018ICRC Position on Autonomous Weapon Systems & Background Paper\u2019. Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross."},{"key":"9627_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kraska, P. B. (2007). Militarization and policing\u2014its relevance to 21st Century Police. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 1(4), 501\u2013513.","DOI":"10.1093\/police\/pam065"},{"key":"9627_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leveringhaus, Alex. 2016. Ethics and Autonomous Weapons. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK.","DOI":"10.1057\/978-1-137-52361-7"},{"key":"9627_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McFarland, T. (2020). Autonomous Weapon Systems and the Law of Armed Conflict: compatibility with International Humanitarian Law. Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108584654"},{"key":"9627_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosert, E., and Frank Sauer (2019). Prohibiting Autonomous Weapons: put human dignity first. Global Policy, 10(3), 370\u2013375.","DOI":"10.1111\/1758-5899.12691"},{"key":"9627_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schwarz, E. (2018). Death machines: the Ethics of Violent Technologies. Manchester: Manchester University Press.","DOI":"10.7765\/9781526114839"},{"key":"9627_CR33","unstructured":"Select Committee on Artificial Intelligence. (2018). AI in the UK: ready, willing and able? London: House of Lords."},{"key":"9627_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sharkey, A. (2019). Autonomous Weapons Systems, Killer Robots and Human dignity. Ethics and Information Technology, 21(2), 75\u201387. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10676-018-9494-0.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-018-9494-0"},{"key":"9627_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Taddeo, M., and Alexander B. (2022a). Accepting Moral responsibility for the actions of Autonomous Weapons Systems\u2014a Moral Gambit. Philosophy & Technology, 35(3), 78. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13347-022-00571-x","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-022-00571-x"},{"key":"9627_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Taddeo, M., and Alexander B. (2022b).\u00a0\u00a0\u2018A Comparative Analysis of the Definitions of Autonomous Weapons Systems\u2019. Science and Engineering Ethics 28 (5): 37. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11948-022-00392-3","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-022-00392-3"},{"key":"9627_CR37","unstructured":"Taddeo, M., Ziosi, M., Tsamados, A., & Gilli, L., and Shalini Kurapati (2022). Artificial Intelligence for National Security: the predictability problem. London: Centre for Emerging Technology and Security."},{"key":"9627_CR38","unstructured":"United Nations General Assembly (1979). \u2018Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement\u2019. Human Rights Instrument \/ Universal Instrument 34\/169. New York: United Nations."},{"key":"9627_CR39","unstructured":"United Nations Human Rights Council (2022). \u201851\/22 Human Rights Implications of New and Emerging Technologies in the Military Domain. Reslution Adopted by the Human Rights Council on 7 October 2022\u2019. A\/HRC\/RES\/51\/22. New York: United Nations General Assembly. https:\/\/documents-dds-ny.un.org\/doc\/UNDOC\/GEN\/G22\/520\/64\/PDF\/G2252064.pdf?OpenElement."},{"key":"9627_CR40","unstructured":"Vincent B., Neil D., Netta G.,and Moa P. C. (2020). Limits on autonomy in Weapon Systems: identifying practical elements of Human Control. Solna, Sweden: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. https:\/\/www.icrc.org\/en\/document\/limits-autonomous-weapons"},{"key":"9627_CR41","unstructured":"Weizenbaum, J. (1984). Computer Power and Human reason: from judgement to calculation. London: Penguin."},{"key":"9627_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Williams, J. (2015). \u2018Democracy and Regulating Autonomous Weapons: Biting the Bullet While Missing the Point?\u2019 Global Policy 6 (3): 179\u201389. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1758-5899.12203.","DOI":"10.1111\/1758-5899.12203"},{"key":"9627_CR43","unstructured":"Winner, L. (1978). Autonomous Technology: Technics-out-of-control as a theme in political thought. London: MIT Press."}],"container-title":["Minds and Machines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11023-023-09627-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11023-023-09627-z\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11023-023-09627-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,9]],"date-time":"2023-12-09T17:08:40Z","timestamp":1702141720000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s11023-023-09627-z"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["9627"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11023-023-09627-z","relation":{},"ISSN":["0924-6495","1572-8641"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0924-6495","type":"print"},{"value":"1572-8641","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]},"assertion":[{"value":"11 January 2023","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"27 January 2023","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"13 March 2023","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}}]}}