{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T18:57:01Z","timestamp":1781636221892,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":168,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771804800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771804800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000995","name":"Australian National University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000995","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Minds &amp; Machines"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>LLMs are among the most advanced tools ever devised for understanding and generating natural language. Democratic deliberation and decision-making involve, at several distinct stages, the production and comprehension of language. So it is natural to ask whether our best linguistic tools might prove instrumental to one of our most important linguistic tasks involving language. Researchers and practitioners have recently asked whether LLMs can support democratic deliberation by leveraging abilities to summarise content, to aggregate opinions over summarised content, and to represent voters by predicting their preferences over unseen choices. In this paper, we assess whether using LLMs to perform these and related functions really advances the democratic values behind these experiments. We suggest that the record is mixed. In the presence of background inequality of power and resources, as well as deep moral and political disagreement, we should not use LLMs to automate non-instrumentally valuable components of the democratic process, nor should we be tempted to supplant fair and transparent decision-making procedures that are practically necessary to reconcile competing interests and values. However, while LLMs should be kept well clear of formal democratic decision-making processes, we think they can instead strengthen the informal public sphere\u2014the arena that mediates between democratic governments and the polities that they serve, in which political communities seek information, form civic publics, and hold their leaders to account.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11023-026-09767-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T08:03:15Z","timestamp":1771833795000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Using LLMs to Enhance Democracy"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"36","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5378-6033","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seth","family":"Lazar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-3215-5703","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lorenzo","family":"Manuali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"9767_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Abdul Samad, S., Sushma, R., Bharathi Mohan, G., Samuji, P., Repakula, S., & Kothamasu, S. R. (2024). Advancing abstractive summarization: Evaluating GPT-2, bart, T5-small, and pegasus models with baseline in rouge and bleu metrics. Innovations in Cybersecurity and Data Science (pp. 119\u201331). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-981-97-5791-6_10","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-97-5791-6_10"},{"key":"9767_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allen, D. (2023). Justice by means of democracy. University of Chicago Press.","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226777122.001.0001"},{"issue":"1","key":"9767_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1353\/jod.2024.a915355","volume":"35","author":"D Allen","year":"2024","unstructured":"Allen, D., & Weyl, E. G. (2024). The real dangers of generative AI. Journal of Democracy, 35(1), 147\u2013162. https:\/\/muse.jhu.edu\/pub\/1\/article\/915355","journal-title":"Journal of Democracy"},{"issue":"5","key":"9767_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1080\/13569775.2020.1791306","volume":"26","author":"N Alnemr","year":"2020","unstructured":"Alnemr, N. (2020). Emancipation cannot be programmed: Blind spots of algorithmic facilitation in online deliberation. Contemporary Politics, 26(5), 531\u2013552. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13569775.2020.1791306","journal-title":"Contemporary Politics"},{"key":"9767_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/0199276382.001.0001","volume-title":"Losers' consent: Elections and democratic legitimacy","author":"C Anderson","year":"2005","unstructured":"Anderson, C. (2005). Losers\u2019 consent: Elections and democratic legitimacy. Oxford University Press."},{"key":"9767_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Anderson, E. (2009). Democracy: Instrumental vs. non-instrumental value. In T. Christiano & J. Christman (Eds.), Contemporary debates in political philosophy (pp. 213\u2013227). Wiley. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/9781444310399","DOI":"10.1002\/9781444310399"},{"key":"9767_CR7","unstructured":"First Report: Democratic Inputs to AI. (2023). Dembrane. https:\/\/www.dembrane.com\/blog\/report-openai-october-2023"},{"key":"9767_CR8","unstructured":"Anthropic. (2025). Claude 4.5 Opus Soul Document. https:\/\/gist.github.com\/Richard-Weiss\/efe157692991535403bd7e7fb20b6695"},{"issue":"41","key":"9767_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2311627120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2311627120","volume":"120","author":"LP Argyle","year":"2023","unstructured":"Argyle, L. P., Bail, C. A., Busby, E. C., Gubler, J. R., Howe, T., Rytting, C., Sorensen, T., & Wingate, D. (2023). Leveraging AI for democratic discourse: Chat interventions can improve online political conversations at scale. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(41), e2311627120.","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"9767_CR10","volume-title":"Teledemocracy: Can technology protect democracy?","author":"FC Arterton","year":"1987","unstructured":"Arterton, F. C. (1987). Teledemocracy: Can technology protect democracy? Sage."},{"issue":"1","key":"9767_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1177\/00323217221096564","volume":"72","author":"U Aytac","year":"2024","unstructured":"Aytac, U. (2024). Digital domination: Social media and contestatory democracy. Political Studies, 72(1), 6\u201325.","journal-title":"Political Studies"},{"key":"9767_CR12","first-page":"38176","volume":"35","author":"M Bakker","year":"2022","unstructured":"Bakker, M., Chadwick, M., Sheahan, H., Tessler, M., Campbell-Gillingham, L., Balaguer, J., Mcaleese, N., Glaese, A., Aslanides, J., Botvinick, M., & Summerfield, C. (2022). Fine-tuning language models to find agreement among humans with diverse preferences. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 35, 38176\u201338189.","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"key":"9767_CR14","unstructured":"Begu\u0161, G., D\u0105bkowski, M., & Rhodes, R. (2023). Large linguistic models: Analyzing theoretical linguistic abilities of LLMs. arXiv preprint  arXiv:2305.00948"},{"issue":"5","key":"9767_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2813","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.2020.3666","volume":"67","author":"G Benade","year":"2021","unstructured":"Benad \u00e8, G., Nath, S., Procaccia, A. D., & Shah, N. (2021). Preference elicitation for participatory budgeting. Management Science, 67(5), 2813\u20132827. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1287\/mnsc.2020.3666","journal-title":"Management Science"},{"key":"9767_CR16","unstructured":"Bennett, S. & Cutler, N. (2019). Lab long read: Policy consultations\u2014part 2: A role for data science?, Policy Lab (GOV.UK). https:\/\/openpolicy.blog.gov.uk\/2019\/10\/28\/lab-long-read-policy-consultations-part-2-role-of-data-science\/"},{"key":"9767_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bernholz, L. (2016). Creating digital civil society: The digital public library of America. In R. Reich, C. Cordelli, & L. Bernholz (Eds.), Philanthropy in democratic societies: History, institutions, values (pp. 178\u2013202). The University of Chicago Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7208\/chicago\/9780226335780.003.0008","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226335780.003.0008"},{"issue":"1","key":"9767_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.54501\/jots.v2i1.148","volume":"2","author":"M Bernstein","year":"2023","unstructured":"Bernstein, M., Christin, A., Hancock, J., Hashimoto, T., Jia, C., Lam, M., Meister, N., Persily, N., Piccardi, T., Saveski, M., Tsai, J. L., Ugander, J., & Xu, C. (2023). Embedding societal values into social media algorithms. Journal of Online Trust and Safety, 2(1), 1\u201313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.54501\/jots.v2i1.148","journal-title":"Journal of Online Trust and Safety"},{"key":"9767_CR20","volume-title":"Principled agents? The political economy of good government","author":"T Besley","year":"2006","unstructured":"Besley, T. (2006). Principled agents? The political economy of good government. Oxford University Press."},{"key":"9767_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bharathi Mohan, G., Prasanna Kumar, R., Parathasarathy, S., Aravind, S., Hanish, K. B., & Pavithria, G. (2023). Text summarization for big data analytics: A comprehensive review of GPT 2 and BERT approaches. In R. Sharma, G. Jeon, & Y. Zhang (Eds.), Data Analytics for Internet of Things Infrastructure (pp. 247\u2013264). Springer Nature Switzerland.\u00a0 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-031-33808-3_14","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-33808-3_14"},{"key":"9767_CR22","volume-title":"Computers and democracy: A scandinavian challenge","author":"G Bjerknes","year":"1987","unstructured":"Bjerknes, G., Ehn, P., & Kyng, M. (1987). Computers and democracy: A scandinavian challenge. Gower Publishing."},{"key":"9767_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3663","DOI":"10.52202\/068431-0265","volume":"35","author":"R Bommasani","year":"2022","unstructured":"Bommasani, R., Creel, K. A., Kumar, A., Jurafsky, D., & Liang, P. S. (2022). Picking on the same person: Does algorithmic monoculture lead to outcome homogenization? Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 35, 3663\u20133678.https:\/\/proceedings.neurips.cc\/paper_files\/paper\/2022\/hash\/17a234c91f746d9625a75cf8a8731ee2-Abstract-Conference.html","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"key":"9767_CR24","unstructured":"Bonchek, M. S. (1995). Grassroots in cyberspace: recruiting members on the internet. In\u00a053rd Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago\u00a0(pp. 6\u20138)."},{"key":"9767_CR25","unstructured":"Boulos, M., Van Opheusden, B., Fogelman, B., Albrecht, J., Huang, V., & Richardson, A. (2023). The need for trust: Analyzing the individual comments to the Ntia\u2019s AI RFC. Imbue: https:\/\/imbue.com\/perspectives\/ntia-rfc-analysis-individual\/"},{"issue":"28","key":"9767_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7313","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1618923114","volume":"114","author":"WJ Brady","year":"2017","unstructured":"Brady, W. J., Wills, J. A., Jost, J. T., Tucker, J. A., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2017). Emotion shapes the diffusion of moralized content in social networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(28), 7313\u20137318. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1618923114","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"9767_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781107446984","volume-title":"Handbook of computational social choice","author":"F Brandt","year":"2016","unstructured":"Brandt, F., Conitzer, V., Endriss, U., Lang, J., & Procaccia, A. D. (2016). Handbook of computational social choice. Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"9767_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Brill, M., et al. (2019). Interactive democracy: New challenges for social choice theory. In J.-F. Laslier, H. Moulin, M. R. Sanver, & W. S. Zwicker (Eds.), The Future of Economic Design: The Continuing Development of a Field as Envisioned by Its Researchers (pp. 59\u201366). Springer International Publishing. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-18050-8_10","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-18050-8_10"},{"issue":"2","key":"9767_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8675.00052","volume":"4","author":"H Buchstein","year":"1997","unstructured":"Buchstein, H. (1997). Bytes that bite: The Internet and deliberative democracy. Constellations, 4(2), 248\u2013263.","journal-title":"Constellations"},{"key":"9767_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-polisci-051117-050904","author":"JG Bullock","year":"2019","unstructured":"Bullock, J. G., & Lenz, G. S. (2019). Partisan bias in surveys. Annual Review of Political Science. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-polisci-051117-050904","journal-title":"Annual Review of Political Science"},{"issue":"1","key":"9767_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-021-01170-8","volume":"37","author":"P Burgess","year":"2022","unstructured":"Burgess, P. (2022). Algorithmic augmentation of democracy: Considering whether technology can enhance the concepts of democracy and the rule of law through four hypotheticals. AI & Society, 37(1), 97\u2013112. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-021-01170-8","journal-title":"AI &amp; Society"},{"issue":"1","key":"9767_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/2053951715622512","volume":"3","author":"J Burrell","year":"2016","unstructured":"Burrell, J. (2016). How the machine \u2018thinks\u2019: Understanding opacity in machine learning algorithms. Big Data & Society, 3(1), 2053951715622512. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/2053951715622512","journal-title":"Big Data &amp; Society"},{"key":"9767_CR33","unstructured":"Chan, C.M., Chen, W., Su, Y., Yu, J., Xue, W., Zhang, S., Fu, J., & Liu, Z. (2023). ChatEval: Towards better LLM-based evaluators through multi-agent debate. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2308.07201"},{"key":"9767_CR34","unstructured":"Cheng-Ping, H., Sun, S., Kriman, S., Acharya, S., Rekesh, D., Jia, F., Zhang, Y., & Ginsburg, B. (2024). Ruler: What\u2019s the real context size of your long-context language models? arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2404.06654"},{"issue":"3","key":"9767_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9760.2004.00200.x","volume":"12","author":"T Christiano","year":"2004","unstructured":"Christiano, T. (2004). The authority of democracy. Journal of Political Philosophy, 12(3), 266\u2013290. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1467-9760.2004.00200.x","journal-title":"Journal of Political Philosophy"},{"key":"9767_CR36","volume-title":"Why AI undermines democracy and what to do about it","author":"M Coeckelbergh","year":"2024","unstructured":"Coeckelbergh, M. (2024). Why AI undermines democracy and what to do about it. John Wiley & Sons."},{"issue":"1","key":"9767_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-025-00529-0","volume":"31","author":"M Coeckelbergh","year":"2025","unstructured":"Coeckelbergh, M. (2025). LLMs, truth, and democracy: An overview of risks. Science and Engineering Ethics, 31(1), 4. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11948-025-00529-0","journal-title":"Science and Engineering Ethics"},{"issue":"1","key":"9767_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1086\/292815","volume":"97","author":"J Cohen","year":"1986","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (1986). An epistemic conception of democracy. Ethics, 97(1), 26\u201338. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1086\/292815","journal-title":"Ethics"},{"key":"9767_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Cohen, J., & Fung, A. (2021). Democracy and the digital public sphere. In L. Bernholz, H. Landemore, & R. Reich (Eds.), Digital technology and democratic theory (pp. 23\u201361). The University of Chicago Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7208\/chicago\/9780226748603.003.0002","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226748603.003.0002"},{"issue":"6714","key":"9767_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eadq1814","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adq1814","volume":"385","author":"TH Costello","year":"2024","unstructured":"Costello, T. H., Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2024). Durably reducing conspiracy beliefs through dialogues with AI. Psychology & Psychiatry Journal., 385(6714), eadq1814. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.adq1814","journal-title":"Psychology &amp; Psychiatry Journal."},{"key":"9767_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.12987\/9780300252392","volume-title":"Atlas of AI: Power, politics, and the planetary costs of artificial intelligence","author":"K Crawford","year":"2021","unstructured":"Crawford, K. (2021). Atlas of AI: Power, politics, and the planetary costs of artificial intelligence. Yale University Press."},{"key":"9767_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195106336.001.0001","volume-title":"Civic virtues: Rights, citizenship, and republican liberalism","author":"R Dagger","year":"1997","unstructured":"Dagger, R. (1997). Civic virtues: Rights, citizenship, and republican liberalism. Oxford University Press."},{"key":"9767_CR43","volume-title":"Democracy and Its critics","author":"RA Dahl","year":"1989","unstructured":"Dahl, R. A. (1989). Democracy and Its critics. Yale University Press."},{"key":"9767_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Darapaneni, N., Prajeesh, R., Dutta, P., Pillai, V. K., Karak, A., & Paduri, A. R. (2023). Abstractive text summarization using BERT and GPT-2 models, In\u00a02023 International Conference on Signal Processing, Computation, Electronics, Power and Telecommunication (IConSCEPT) (IEEE). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/IConSCEPT57958.2023.10170093","DOI":"10.1109\/IConSCEPT57958.2023.10170093"},{"issue":"12","key":"9767_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7717","DOI":"10.1007\/s10115-024-02217-0","volume":"66","author":"E Davoodijam","year":"2024","unstructured":"Davoodijam, E., & Mohsen. (2024). Evaluation metrics on text summarization: Comprehensive survey. Knowledge and Information Systems, 66(12), 7717\u20137738. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10115-024-02217-0","journal-title":"Knowledge and Information Systems"},{"key":"9767_CR46","unstructured":"Devine, F., Krasodomski-Jones, A., Miller, C., Lin, S. Y., Cui, J.W., Marnette, B., & Wilkinson, R. (2023). Recursive public: piloting connected democratic engagement with AI governance. https:\/\/vtaiwan-openai-2023.vercel.app\/Report_%20Recursive%20Public.pdf"},{"issue":"1","key":"9767_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1353\/jod.2020.0003","volume":"31","author":"L Diamond","year":"2020","unstructured":"Diamond, L. (2020). Breaking out of the democratic slump. Journal of Democracy, 31(1), 36\u201350.","journal-title":"Journal of Democracy"},{"key":"9767_CR48","unstructured":"Edelman, J. (2023). Democratic fine-tuning, Lesswrong. https:\/\/www.lesswrong.com\/posts\/ncb2ycEB3ymNqzs93\/democratic-fine-tuning"},{"key":"9767_CR49","unstructured":"Edelman, J., & Klingefjord, O. (2023). OpenAI X Dft: The first moral graph. Meaning Alignment Institute. https:\/\/meaningalignment.substack.com\/p\/the-first-moral-graph"},{"key":"9767_CR50","unstructured":"Farrell, H., & Han, H. (2025, August 1). AI and democratic publics. Knight First Amendment Institute. http:\/\/knightcolumbia.org\/content\/ai-and-democratic-publics"},{"key":"9767_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Fischli, R. (2024). Data-owning democracy: Citizen empowerment through data ownership. European Journal of Political Theory, 23(2), 204\u2013223. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/14748851221110316","DOI":"10.1177\/14748851221110316"},{"key":"9767_CR53","unstructured":"Fish, S., G\u00f6lz, P., Parkes, D. C., Procaccia, A. D., Rusak, G., Shapira, I., & W\u00fcthrich, M. (2025). Generative social choice. arXiv preprint : https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2309.01291"},{"issue":"7873","key":"9767_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03788-6","volume":"596","author":"B Flanigan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Flanigan, B., G\u00f6lz, P., Gupta, A., Hennig, B., & Procaccia, A. D. (2021). Fair algorithms for selecting citizens\u2019 assemblies. Nature, 596(7873), 548\u2013552. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41586-021-03788-6","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"9767_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ford, B. (2021). Technologizing democracy or democratizing technology? A layered-architecture perspective on potentials and challenges. In R. Reich, L. Bernholz, & H. Landemore (Eds.), Digital technology and democratic theory (pp. 274\u2013321). The University of Chicago Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7208\/chicago\/9780226748603.003.0011","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226748603.003.0011"},{"key":"9767_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fukuyama, F. (2020). The End of History? In S. Seidman & J. C. Alexander (Eds.), The New Social Theory Reader (2nd ed., pp. 298\u2013304). Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003060963-49"},{"key":"9767_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gastil, J., & Davies, T. (2020). Digital democracy: Episode IV\u2014A New Hope*: How a Corporation for Public Software Could Transform Digital Engagement for Government and Civil Society. Digital Government: Research and Practice, 1(1), 1\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3342194","DOI":"10.1145\/3342194"},{"key":"9767_CR58","unstructured":"Goldberg, B., Acosta-Navas, D., Bakker, M., Beacock, I., Botvinick, M., Buch, P., DiResta, R., Donthi, N., Fast, N., Iyer, R., Zaria, J., Konya, A., Kwak Danciu, G., Landemore, H., Marwick, A., Miller, C., Ovadya, A., Saltz, E., Schirch, L., Shalom, D., Siddarth, D., Sieker, F., Small, C., Stray, J., Tang, A., Tessler, M., & Zhang, A. (2024). AI and the future of digital public squares. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2412.09988"},{"key":"9767_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198823452.001.0001","volume-title":"An epistemic theory of democracy","author":"RE Goodin","year":"2018","unstructured":"Goodin, R. E., & Spiekermann, K. (2018). An epistemic theory of democracy. Oxford University Press."},{"key":"9767_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Greshake, K., Abdelnabi, S., Mishra, S., Endres, C., Holz, T., & Fritz, M. (2023). Not what you\u2019ve signed up for: Compromising real-world LLM-integrated applications with indirect prompt injection. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2302.12173","DOI":"10.1145\/3605764.3623985"},{"issue":"2","key":"9767_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1177\/089443939601400203","volume":"14","author":"R Groper","year":"1996","unstructured":"Groper, R. (1996). Electronic mail and the reinvigoration of american democracy. Social Science Computer Review, 14(2), 157\u2013168. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/089443939601400203","journal-title":"Social Science Computer Review"},{"key":"9767_CR62","unstructured":"Grossi, D., Hahn, U., M\u00e4s, M., Nitsche, A., Behrens, J., Boehmer, N., Brill, M., Endriss, U., Grandi, U., Haret, A., Heitzig, J., Janssens, N., Jonker, C. M., Keijzer, M. A., Kistner, A., Lackner, M., Lieben, A., Mikhaylovskaya, A., Murukannaiah, P. K., Proietti, C., Revel, M., Roum\u00e9as, \u00c9., Shapiro, E., Sreedurga, G., Swierczek, B., Talmon, N., Turrini, P., Terzopoulou, Z., & Van De Putte, F. (2024). Enabling the digital democratic revival: A research program for digital democracy. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2401.16863"},{"issue":"3","key":"9767_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003055422000934","volume":"117","author":"JM Grumbach","year":"2023","unstructured":"Grumbach, J. M. (2023). Laboratories of democratic backsliding. American Political Science Review, 117(3), 967\u2013984. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0003055422000934","journal-title":"American Political Science Review"},{"key":"9767_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Guan, M. Y., Joglekar, M., Wallace, E., Jain, S., Barak, B., Helyar, A., Dias, R., Vallone, A., Ren, H., Wei, J., Chung, H. W., Toyer, S., Heidecke, J., Beutel, A., & Glaese, A. (2025). Deliberative alignment: Reasoning enables safer language models arXiv https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2412.16339","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2412.16339"},{"key":"9767_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gudi\u00f1o-Rosero, J., Grandi, U., & Hidalgo, C. A. (2024). Large language models (LLMs) as agents for augmented democracy. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2405.03452","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2024.0100"},{"key":"9767_CR66","volume-title":"The structural transformation of the public sphere: An inquiry into a category of bourgeois society","author":"J Habermas","year":"1991","unstructured":"Habermas, J. (1991). The structural transformation of the public sphere: An inquiry into a category of bourgeois society. The MIT press."},{"key":"9767_CR67","volume-title":"Between facts and norms: Contributions to a discourse theory of law and democracy","author":"J Habermas","year":"1998","unstructured":"Habermas, J. (1998). Between facts and norms: Contributions to a discourse theory of law and democracy. The MIT Press."},{"key":"9767_CR68","volume-title":"The theory of communicative action","author":"JR Habermas","year":"1984","unstructured":"Habermas, J. R. (1984). The theory of communicative action. Beacon Press."},{"key":"9767_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.16997\/jdd.191.","volume":"10","author":"J Hartz-Karp","year":"2014","unstructured":"Hartz-Karp, J., & Sullivan, B. (2014). The unfulfilled promise of online deliberation. Journal of Public Deliberation, 10, 16. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.16997\/jdd.191.","journal-title":"Journal of Public Deliberation"},{"issue":"2","key":"9767_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-024-09775-5","volume":"26","author":"MT Hicks","year":"2024","unstructured":"Hicks, M. T., Humphries, J., & Slater, J. (2024). ChatGPT is bullshit. Ethics and Information Technology, 26(2), 38. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10676-024-09775-5","journal-title":"Ethics and Information Technology"},{"key":"9767_CR71","volume-title":"Cyberpolitics: Citizen activism in the age of the internet","author":"KA Hill","year":"1998","unstructured":"Hill, K. A., & Hughes, J. E. (1998). Cyberpolitics: Citizen activism in the age of the internet. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc."},{"key":"9767_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Himmelreich, J. (2022). Should we automate democracy? In C. Veliz (Ed.), Oxford handbook of digital ethics (pp. 655\u2013684). Oxford University Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780198857815.013.33","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780198857815.013.33"},{"issue":"4","key":"9767_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1333","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-021-01357-z","volume":"38","author":"J Himmelreich","year":"2023","unstructured":"Himmelreich, J. (2023). Against \u201cDemocratizing AI.\u201d AI & Society, 38(4), 1333\u20131346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-021-01357-z","journal-title":"AI &amp; Society"},{"key":"9767_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Huang, S., Siddarth, D., Lovitt, L., Liao, T. I., Durmus, E., Tamkin, A., & Ganguli. D., (2024). Collective constitutional AI: Aligning a language model with public input. In\u00a0ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency\u00a0(pp. 1395\u2013 1417). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3630106.3658979","DOI":"10.1145\/3630106.3658979"},{"key":"9767_CR75","first-page":"78","volume":"65","author":"A Huq","year":"2018","unstructured":"Huq, A., & Ginsburg, T. (2018). How to lose a constitutional democracy. UCLA L. Rev., 65, 78. https:\/\/www.uclalawreview.org\/lose-constitutional-democracy\/","journal-title":"UCLA L. Rev."},{"key":"9767_CR76","unstructured":"Jarrett, D., Pislar, M., Bakker, M. A., Tessler, M. H., Koster, R., Balaguer, J., Elie, R., Summerfield, C., & Tacchetti, A. (2025). Language agents as digital representatives in collective decision-making. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2502.09369"},{"key":"9767_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ji, Z., Yu, T., Xu, Y., Lee, N., Ishii, E., & Fung, P. (2023). Towards mitigating LLM hallucination via self reflection. In H. Bouamor, J. Pino, & K. Bali (Eds.), Findings of the association for computational linguistics: EMNLP 2023 (pp. 1827\u20131843). Association for Computational Linguistics. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/2023.findings-emnlp.123","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.findings-emnlp.123"},{"key":"9767_CR78","unstructured":"Jia, C., Lam, M. S., Mai, M. C., Hancock, J., & Bernstein, M. S., (2023). Embedding democratic values into social media AIs via societal objective functions. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2307.13912"},{"issue":"4","key":"9767_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102079","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2025.102079","volume":"42","author":"A Jungherr","year":"2025","unstructured":"Jungherr, A., & Rauchfleisch, A. (2025). Artificial intelligence in deliberation: The AI penalty and the emergence of a new deliberative divide. Government Information Quarterly, 42(4), 102079. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.giq.2025.102079","journal-title":"Government Information Quarterly"},{"key":"9767_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1613\/jair.1.12261","volume":"70","author":"A Kahng","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kahng, A., Mackenzie, S., & Procaccia, A. D. (2021). Liquid democracy: An algorithmic perspective. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, 70, 1223\u20131252. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1613\/jair.1.12261","journal-title":"Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research"},{"key":"9767_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kenthapadi, K., Sameki, M., & Taly, A. (2024). Grounding and evaluation for large language models: Practical challenges and lessons learned (survey). In\u00a0Proceedings of the 30th ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (pp. 6523\u20136533). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3637528.3671467","DOI":"10.1145\/3637528.3671467"},{"key":"9767_CR82","first-page":"710","volume":"126","author":"LM Khan","year":"2016","unstructured":"Khan, L. M. (2016). Amazon\u2019s antitrust paradox. Yale Law Journal, 126, 710. https:\/\/yalelawjournal.org\/note\/amazons-antitrust-paradox","journal-title":"Yale Law Journal"},{"key":"9767_CR83","unstructured":"Kim, Y., Chang, Y., Karpinska, M., Garimella, A., Manjunatha, V., Lo, K., Goyal, T., & Iyyer, M. (2024). FABLES: Evaluating faithfulness and content selection in book-length summarization. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2404.01261"},{"issue":"2","key":"9767_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1093\/poq\/nfab029","volume":"85","author":"J Kingzette","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kingzette, J., Druckman, J. N., Klar, S., Krupnikov, Y., Levendusky, M., & Ryan, J. B. (2021). How affective polarization undermines support for democratic norms. Public Opinion Quarterly, 85(2), 663\u2013677. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/poq\/nfab029","journal-title":"Public Opinion Quarterly"},{"key":"9767_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/jj.890692","volume-title":"The pecking order: Social hierarchy as a philosophical problem","author":"N Kolodny","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kolodny, N. (2023). The pecking order: Social hierarchy as a philosophical problem. Harvard University Press."},{"key":"9767_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Konya, A., Schirch, L., Irwin, C., & Ovadya, A. (2023). Democratic policy development using collective dialogues and AI.  arXiv: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2311.02242","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2311.02242"},{"key":"9767_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Konya, A., Thorburn, L., Almasri, W., Leshem, O. A., Procaccia, A. D., Schirch, L., & Bakker, M. A. (2025). Using collective dialogues and AI to find common ground between Israeli and Palestinian Peacebuilders. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2503.01769","DOI":"10.1145\/3715275.3732022"},{"issue":"4","key":"9767_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1353\/jod.2023.a907693","volume":"34","author":"S Kreps","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kreps, S., & Kriner, D. (2023). How AI threatens democracy. Journal of Democracy, 34(4), 122\u2013131. https:\/\/muse.jhu.edu\/pub\/1\/article\/907693","journal-title":"Journal of Democracy"},{"key":"9767_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/9781400845538","volume-title":"Democratic reason: Politics, collective intelligence, and the rule of the many","author":"H Landemore","year":"2012","unstructured":"Landemore, H. (2012a). Democratic reason: Politics, collective intelligence, and the rule of the many. Princeton University Press."},{"issue":"1","key":"9767_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.16997\/jdd.129","volume":"8","author":"H Landemore","year":"2012","unstructured":"Landemore, H. (2012b). Why the many are smarter than the few and why it matters. Journal of Deliberative Democracy., 8(1), 7. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.16997\/jdd.129","journal-title":"Journal of Deliberative Democracy."},{"key":"9767_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Landemore, H. (2021a). Open democracy and digital technologies. In L. Bernholz, H. Landemore, & R. Reich (Eds.), Digital technology and democratic theory (pp. 62\u201389). The University of Chicago Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7208\/chicago\/9780226748603.003.0003","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226748603.003.0003"},{"key":"9767_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429326769-44","volume-title":"The routledge handbook of political epistemology","author":"H Landemore","year":"2021","unstructured":"Landemore, H. (2021b). An epistemic argument for democracy. In M. Hannon & J. de Ridder (Eds.), The routledge handbook of political epistemology (pp. 363\u2013373). Routledge."},{"key":"9767_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Landemore, H. (2023). Can artificial intelligence bring deliberation to the masses? In R. Chang & A. Srinivasan (Eds.), Conversations in philosophy, law, and politics (pp. 39\u201369). Oxford University Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/oso\/9780198864523.003.0003","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198864523.003.0003"},{"key":"9767_CR94","unstructured":"Lazar, S. (2023). Communicative justice and the distribution of attention. Knight First Amendment Institute: http:\/\/knightcolumbia.tierradev.com\/content\/communicative-justice-and-the-distribution-of-attention"},{"key":"9767_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198909460.003.0002","volume":"10","author":"S Lazar","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lazar, S. (2024a). Legitimacy, authority, and democratic duties of explanation. Oxford Studies in Political Philosophy, 10, 28\u201356. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/oso\/9780198909460.003.0002","journal-title":"Oxford Studies in Political Philosophy"},{"key":"9767_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lazar, S. (2024b). Automatic Authorities: Power and AI. In A. Sethumadhavan & M. Lane (Eds.), Collaborative intelligence: How humans and AI are transforming our world (pp. 37\u201360). MIT Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7551\/mitpress\/14962.003.0004","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/14962.003.0004"},{"key":"9767_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/papa.12279","author":"S Lazar","year":"2025","unstructured":"Lazar, S. (2025). Governing the Algorithmic City. Philosophy & Public Affairs. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/papa.12279","journal-title":"Philosophy & Public Affairs"},{"key":"9767_CR98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lazar, S., Thorburn, L., Jin, T., & Belli, L. (2024). The moral case for using language model agents for recommendation. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2410.12123","DOI":"10.1080\/0020174X.2025.2515579"},{"key":"9767_CR99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lechterman, T. M. (2024). The perfect politician. In D. Edmonds (Ed.), AI morality (pp. 53\u201363). Oxford University Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/oso\/9780198876434.003.0006","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198876434.003.0006"},{"issue":"CSCW","key":"9767_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3359283","volume":"3","author":"MK Lee","year":"2019","unstructured":"Lee, M. K., Kusbit, D., Kahng, A., Kim, J. T., Yuan, X., Chan, A., See, D., Noothigattu, R., Lee, S., Psomas, A., & Procaccia, A. D. (2019). WeBuildAI: Participatory framework for algorithmic governance. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 3(CSCW), 1\u201335. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3359283","journal-title":"Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction"},{"key":"9767_CR101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/14219.001.0001","volume-title":"Cloud empires: How digital platforms are overtaking the state and how we can regain control","author":"V Lehdonvirta","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lehdonvirta, V. (2022). Cloud empires: How digital platforms are overtaking the state and how we can regain control. MIT Press."},{"key":"9767_CR102","volume-title":"Democracy in plural societies: A comparative exploration","author":"A Lijphart","year":"1977","unstructured":"Lijphart, A. (1977). Democracy in plural societies: A comparative exploration. Yale University Press."},{"key":"9767_CR103","unstructured":"Lin, J., Dai, X., Xi, Y., Liu, W., Chen, B., Zhang, H., Liu, Y., Wu, C., Li, X., Zhu, C., Guo, H., Yu, Y., Tang, R., & Zhang, W. (2023). How can recommender systems benefit from large language models: A survey. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arXiv.org\/abs\/2306.05817"},{"key":"9767_CR104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lin, S., Hilton, J., & Evans, O. (2022). TruthfulQA: Measuring how models mimic human falsehoods . arXiv https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2109.07958","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2109.07958"},{"issue":"3","key":"9767_CR105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-024-00792-2","volume":"37","author":"T-A Lin","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lin, T.-A. (2024). \u201cDemocratizing AI\u201d and the concern of algorithmic injustice. Philosophy & Technology, 37(3), 103. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13347-024-00792-2","journal-title":"Philosophy &amp; Technology"},{"key":"9767_CR106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103654","DOI":"10.1016\/j.artint.2021.103654","volume":"304","author":"R Liu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Liu, R., Jia, C., Wei, J., Xu, G., & Vosoughi, S. (2022). Quantifying and alleviating political bias in language models. Artificial Intelligence, 304, 103654. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.artint.2021.103654","journal-title":"Artificial Intelligence"},{"key":"9767_CR107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/jj.3252847","volume-title":"Democratic failures and the ethics of democracy","author":"A Lovett","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lovett, A. (2024). Democratic failures and the ethics of democracy. University of Pennsylvania Press."},{"issue":"4","key":"9767_CR108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1111\/papa.12223","volume":"50","author":"A Lovett","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lovett, A., & Zuehl, J. (2022). The possibility of democratic autonomy. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 50(4), 467\u2013498. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/papa.12223","journal-title":"Philosophy &amp; Public Affairs"},{"key":"9767_CR109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198275565.001.0001","volume-title":"Liberal virtues: Citizenship, virtue, and community in liberal constitutionalism","author":"S Macedo","year":"1990","unstructured":"Macedo, S. (1990). Liberal virtues: Citizenship, virtue, and community in liberal constitutionalism. Clarendon Press."},{"key":"9767_CR110","unstructured":"Malkin, C. and N. Alnemr. (2024). Big tech-driven deliberative projects (Techical Paper No. 5). Global Citizens\u2019 Assembly Network . https:\/\/glocan.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/05\/Technical-Paper-5-2024-Malkin-and-Alnemr.pdf"},{"key":"9767_CR111","volume-title":"Beyond adversary democracy","author":"JJ Mansbridge","year":"1983","unstructured":"Mansbridge, J. J. (1983). Beyond adversary democracy. University of Chicago Press."},{"issue":"1","key":"9767_CR112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1177\/1081180X97002001006","volume":"2","author":"M Margolis","year":"1997","unstructured":"Margolis, M., Resnick, D., & Tu, C.-C. (1997). Campaigning on the internet: Parties and candidates on the World Wide Web in the 1996 primary season. Harvard International Journal of Press\/politics, 2(1), 59\u201378. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1081180X97002001006","journal-title":"Harvard International Journal of Press\/politics"},{"key":"9767_CR113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"McDonald, D., Papadopoulos, R., & Benningfield, L. (2024). Reducing LLM hallucination using knowledge distillation: A case study with mistral large and MMLU benchmark. Preprints. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.36227\/techrxiv.171665607.76504195\/v1","DOI":"10.36227\/techrxiv.171665607.76504195\/v1"},{"key":"9767_CR114","volume-title":"Understanding media: The extensions of man","author":"M Mcluhan","year":"1964","unstructured":"Mcluhan, M. (1964). Understanding media: The extensions of man. McGraw Hill."},{"key":"9767_CR115","unstructured":"Mendoza, G. B. (2023) Can We Use AI to Enrich Democratic Consultations?. Rappler. https:\/\/www.rappler.com\/technology\/features\/generative-ai-use-enriching-democratic-consultations\/"},{"key":"9767_CR116","volume-title":"On Nationality","author":"D Miller","year":"1995","unstructured":"Miller, D. (1995). On Nationality. Clarendon Press."},{"issue":"3","key":"9767_CR117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.2307\/1957271","volume":"77","author":"NR Miller","year":"1983","unstructured":"Miller, N. R. (1983). Pluralism and social choice. American Political Science Review, 77(3), 734\u2013747. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/1957271","journal-title":"American Political Science Review"},{"key":"9767_CR118","unstructured":"Milli\u00e8re, R. (2024). Language models as models of language. arXiv preprint: http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2408.07144"},{"key":"9767_CR119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctv272454p","volume-title":"Platform socialism: How to reclaim our digital future from big tech","author":"J Muldoon","year":"2022","unstructured":"Muldoon, J. (2022). Platform socialism: How to reclaim our digital future from big tech. Pluto Press."},{"issue":"1","key":"9767_CR120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2307\/3101118","volume":"5","author":"L Mumford","year":"1964","unstructured":"Mumford, L. (1964). Authoritarian and democratic technics. Technology and Culture, 5(1), 1\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/3101118","journal-title":"Technology and Culture"},{"key":"9767_CR121","unstructured":"Naveed, H., Khan, A. U., Qiu, S., Saqib, M., Anwar, S., Usman, M., Akhtar, N., Barnes, N., & Mian, A. (2023). A comprehensive overview of large language models. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2307.06435"},{"key":"9767_CR122","unstructured":"OpenAI. (2025, February 12). Sharing the latest model spec. OpenAI. https:\/\/openai.com\/index\/sharing-the-latest-model-spec\/"},{"key":"9767_CR123","first-page":"27730","volume":"35","author":"L Ouyang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ouyang, L., Wu, J., Jiang, X., Almeida, D., Wainwright, C., Mishkin, P., Zhang, C., Agarwal, S., Slama, K., Ray, A., Schulman, J., Hilton, J., Kelton, F., Miller, L., Siemens, M., Askell, A., Welinder, P., Christiano, P., Leike, J., & Lowe, R. (2022). Training language models to follow instructions with human feedback. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 35, 27730\u201327744. https:\/\/proceedings.neurips.cc\/paper\/2022\/hash\/b1efde53be364a73914f58805a001731-Abstract-Conference.html","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"issue":"4","key":"9767_CR124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1353\/jod.2023.a907697","volume":"34","author":"A Ovadya","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ovadya, A. (2023). Reimagining democracy for AI. Journal of Democracy, 34(4), 162\u2013170. https:\/\/muse.jhu.edu\/pub\/1\/article\/907697","journal-title":"Journal of Democracy"},{"issue":"5","key":"9767_CR125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1002\/ejsp.2939","volume":"53","author":"K Papaioannou","year":"2023","unstructured":"Papaioannou, K., Pantazi, M., & Van Prooijen, J. W. (2023). Is democracy under threat? Why belief in conspiracy theories predicts autocratic attitudes. European Journal of Social Psychology, 53(5), 846\u2013856. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ejsp.2939","journal-title":"European Journal of Social Psychology"},{"key":"9767_CR126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780198717959.001.0001","volume-title":"Transformative experience","author":"LA Paul","year":"2014","unstructured":"Paul, L. A. (2014). Transformative experience. Oxford University Press."},{"key":"9767_CR127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139017428","volume-title":"On the people\u2019s terms: A republican theory and model of democracy","author":"P Pettit","year":"2012","unstructured":"Pettit, P. (2012). On the people\u2019s terms: A republican theory and model of democracy. Cambridge University Press."},{"issue":"3","key":"9767_CR128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.2307\/2669243","volume":"45","author":"DP Quinn","year":"2001","unstructured":"Quinn, D. P., & Woolley, J. T. (2001). Democracy and national economic performance: The preference for stability. American Journal of Political Science, 45(3), 634\u2013657. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/2669243","journal-title":"American Journal of Political Science"},{"key":"9767_CR129","volume-title":"Political liberalism","author":"J Rawls","year":"1993","unstructured":"Rawls, J. (1993). Political liberalism. Columbia University Press."},{"key":"9767_CR130","volume-title":"System error: Where big tech went wrong and how we can reboot","author":"R Reich","year":"2021","unstructured":"Reich, R., Sahami, M., & Weinstein, J. M. (2021). System error: Where big tech went wrong and how we can reboot. HarperCollins Publishers."},{"issue":"2","key":"9767_CR131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s42001-025-00376-w","volume":"8","author":"L Rettenberger","year":"2025","unstructured":"Rettenberger, L., Reischl, M., & Schutera, M. (2025). Assessing political bias in large language models. Journal of Computational Social Science, 8(2), 1\u201317. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s42001-025-00376-w","journal-title":"Journal of Computational Social Science"},{"issue":"4","key":"9767_CR132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1080\/01972243.1992.9960123","volume":"8","author":"D Ronfeldt","year":"1992","unstructured":"Ronfeldt, D. (1992). Cyberocracy Is coming. Information Society, 8(4), 243\u2013296. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/01972243.1992.9960123","journal-title":"Information Society"},{"key":"9767_CR133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/9780691190068","volume-title":"A lot of people are saying","author":"NL Rosenblum","year":"2019","unstructured":"Rosenblum, N. L., & Muirhead, R. (2019). A lot of people are saying. Princeton University Press."},{"key":"9767_CR134","unstructured":"Rousseau, J.J. (1762). Du Contract Social; Ou Principes Du Droit Politique. Amsterdam: Chez Marc Michel Rey."},{"issue":"10","key":"9767_CR135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1038\/s42256-022-00537-w","volume":"4","author":"HS S\u00e6tra","year":"2022","unstructured":"S\u00e6tra, H. S., Borgebund, H., & Coeckelbergh, M. (2022). Avoid diluting democracy by algorithms. Nature Machine Intelligence, 4(10), 804\u2013806. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s42256-022-00537-w","journal-title":"Nature Machine Intelligence"},{"key":"9767_CR136","unstructured":"Santurkar, S., Durmus, E., Ladhak, F., Lee, C., Liang, P., & Hashimoto, T. (2023). Whose opinions do language models reflect?. In\u00a0Proceedings of the 40th International Conference on Machine Learning (pp. 29971\u201330004). https:\/\/proceedings.mlr.press\/v202\/santurkar23a.html"},{"issue":"2","key":"9767_CR137","first-page":"545","volume":"85","author":"KL Scheppele","year":"2018","unstructured":"Scheppele, K. L. (2018). Autocratic legalism. University of Chicago Law Review, 85(2), 545\u2013584. https:\/\/lawreview.uchicago.edu\/print-archive\/autocratic-legalism","journal-title":"University of Chicago Law Review"},{"issue":"3","key":"9767_CR138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1353\/jod.2022.0039","volume":"33","author":"KL Scheppele","year":"2022","unstructured":"Scheppele, K. L. (2022). How Viktor Orb\u00e1n wins. Journal of Democracy, 33(3), 45\u201361. https:\/\/muse.jhu.edu\/pub\/1\/article\/860244","journal-title":"Journal of Democracy"},{"issue":"1","key":"9767_CR139","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1300\/J516v04n01_04","volume":"4","author":"D Schlosberg","year":"2008","unstructured":"Schlosberg, D., Zavestoski, S., & Shulman, S. W. (2008). Democracy and e-rulemaking: Web-based technologies, participation, and the potential for deliberation. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 4(1), 37\u201355. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1300\/J516v04n01_04","journal-title":"Journal of Information Technology &amp; Politics"},{"issue":"6","key":"9767_CR140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.1080\/10584609.2020.1760974","volume":"37","author":"R Schmitt-Beck","year":"2020","unstructured":"Schmitt-Beck, R., & Grill, C. (2020). From the living room to the meeting hall? Citizens\u2019 political talk in the deliberative system. Political Communication, 37(6), 832\u2013851. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10584609.2020.1760974","journal-title":"Political Communication"},{"key":"9767_CR141","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Schuler, D. (2020). Can technology support democracy?. Digital Government: Research and Practice, 1(1), 1\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3352462","DOI":"10.1145\/3352462"},{"key":"9767_CR142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Seger, E., Ovadya, A., Siddarth, D., Garfinkel, B. & Dafoe, A. (2023). Democratising AI: Multiple meanings, goals, and methods. In\u00a0Proceedings of the 2023 AAAI\/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society (pp. 715\u201322). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3600211.3604693","DOI":"10.1145\/3600211.3604693"},{"key":"9767_CR143","first-page":"1085","volume":"87","author":"AD Selbst","year":"2018","unstructured":"Selbst, A. D., & Barocas, S. (2018). The intuitive appeal of explainable machines. Fordham Law Review, 87, 1085\u20131139. https:\/\/ir.lawnet.fordham.edu\/flr\/vol87\/iss3\/11","journal-title":"Fordham Law Review"},{"key":"9767_CR144","unstructured":"Shah, R., Feuillade--Montixi, Q., Pour, S., Tagade, A., Casper, S., & Rando, J. (2023). Scalable and transferable black-box jailbreaks for language models via persona modulation. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2311.03348"},{"key":"9767_CR145","unstructured":"Siddarth, D. (2024). How AI and democracy can fix each other. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=H6MVJm9ElMA"},{"key":"9767_CR146","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.4324\/9781351202114-14","volume-title":"Salience: A philosophical inquiry","author":"S Siegel","year":"2022","unstructured":"Siegel, S. (2022). Salience principles for democracy. In S. Archer (Ed.), Salience: A philosophical inquiry (pp. 235\u2013266). Routledge."},{"key":"9767_CR147","unstructured":"Small, C. T., Vendrov, I., Durmus, E., Hadjar, H., Barry, E., Cornebise, J., Suzman, T., Ganguli, D., & Megill, C. (2023). Opportunities and risks of LLMs for scalable deliberation with polis. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2306.11932"},{"issue":"1-2","key":"9767_CR148","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1080\/01972243.1986.9960016","volume":"4","author":"TD Sterling","year":"1986","unstructured":"Sterling, T. D. (1986). Democracy in an information society. Information Society, 4(1\u20132), 9\u201347. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/01972243.1986.9960016","journal-title":"Information Society"},{"key":"9767_CR149","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Straub, V. J., Hashem, Y., Bright, J., Bhagwanani, S., Morgan, D., Francis, J., Esnaashari, S., & Margetts, H. (2024). AI for bureaucratic productivity: Measuring the potential of AI to help automate 143 million UK government transactions. arXiv: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2403.14712","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2403.14712"},{"key":"9767_CR150","unstructured":"Sulots, N. D. D. L. (2023). Results of first global deliberative poll announced by stanford\u2019s deliberative democracy lab. Stanford Center on Democracy, Development, and the Rule of Law. https:\/\/cddrl.fsi.stanford.edu\/news\/results-first-global-deliberative-pollr-announced-stanfords-deliberative-democracy-lab"},{"key":"9767_CR151","volume-title":"The digital republic: On freedom and democracy in the 21st century","author":"J Susskind","year":"2022","unstructured":"Susskind, J. (2022). The digital republic: On freedom and democracy in the 21st century. Bloomsbury Publishing."},{"key":"9767_CR152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taubenfeld, A., Dover, Y., Reichart, R., & Goldstein, A. (2024). Systematic biases in LLM simulations of debates. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2402.04049","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2024.emnlp-main.16"},{"key":"9767_CR153","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adq2852","author":"MH Tessler","year":"2024","unstructured":"Tessler, M. H., Bakker, M. A., Jarrett, D., Sheahan, H., Chadwick, M. J., Koster, R., Evans, G., Campbell-Gillingham, L., Collins, T., Parkes, D. C., Botvinick, M., & Summerfield, C. (2024). AI can help humans find common ground in democratic deliberation. Science. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.adq2852","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"6","key":"9767_CR154","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1111\/jcom.12259","volume":"66","author":"Y Theocharis","year":"2016","unstructured":"Theocharis, Y., Barber\u00e1, P., Fazekas, Z., Popa, S. A., & Parnet, O. (2016). A bad workman blames his tweets: The consequences of citizens\u2019 uncivil Twitter use when interacting with party candidates. Journal of Communication, 66(6), 1007\u20131031. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/jcom.12259","journal-title":"Journal of Communication"},{"issue":"3","key":"9767_CR155","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.2307\/2585576","volume":"93","author":"G Tsebelis","year":"1999","unstructured":"Tsebelis, G. (1999). Veto players and law production in parliamentary democracies: An empirical analysis. American Political Science Review, 93(3), 591\u2013608. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/2585576","journal-title":"American Political Science Review"},{"key":"9767_CR156","unstructured":"Vats, A., Jain, V., Raja, R., & Chadha, A. (2024). Exploring the impact of large language models on recommender systems: An extensive review. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2402.18590"},{"issue":"4","key":"9767_CR157","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1111\/papa.12036","volume":"42","author":"D Viehoff","year":"2014","unstructured":"Viehoff, D. (2014). Democratic equality and political authority. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 42(4), 337\u2013375. https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/26605216","journal-title":"Philosophy &amp; Public Affairs"},{"issue":"2","key":"9767_CR158","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1111\/jopp.12262","volume":"30","author":"K Vredenburgh","year":"2022","unstructured":"Vredenburgh, K. (2022). The right to explanation. Journal of Political Philosophy, 30(2), 209\u2013229. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/jopp.12262","journal-title":"Journal of Political Philosophy"},{"key":"9767_CR159","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4159\/harvard.9780674436978","volume-title":"Information technology in a democracy","author":"AF Westin","year":"1971","unstructured":"Westin, A. F. (1971). Information technology in a democracy. Harvard University Press."},{"key":"9767_CR160","unstructured":"Weyl, E. G., Tang, A., & Community. (2024). \u6578\u4f4d Plurality: The future of collaborative technology and democracy. Independently published."},{"key":"9767_CR161","volume-title":"The human use of human beings; Cybernetics and society","author":"N Wiener","year":"1950","unstructured":"Wiener, N. (1950). The human use of human beings; Cybernetics and society. Houghton Mifflin."},{"issue":"6","key":"9767_CR162","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1177\/027046768400400609","volume":"4","author":"L Winner","year":"1984","unstructured":"Winner, L. (1984). Mythinformation in the high-tech era. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 4(6), 582\u2013596.","journal-title":"Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society"},{"issue":"2","key":"9767_CR163","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.2307\/3234441","volume":"11","author":"D Winthrop","year":"1978","unstructured":"Winthrop, D. (1978). Aristotle on participatory democracy. Polity, 11(2), 151\u2013171.","journal-title":"Polity"},{"key":"9767_CR164","unstructured":"Wright, N. (2018). How artificial intelligence will reshape the global order. Foreign Affairs, 10. https:\/\/www.foreignaffairs.com\/articles\/world\/2018-07-10\/how-artificial-intelligence-will-reshape-global-order"},{"key":"9767_CR165","unstructured":"Wu, F., Black, E., & Chandrasekaran, V. (2024). Generative monoculture in large language models. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2407.02209"},{"key":"9767_CR166","unstructured":"Wu, Q., Bansal, G., Zhang, J., Wu, Y., Zhang, S., Zhu, E., Li, B., Jiang, L., Zhang, X., & Wang, C. (2023). Autogen: Enabling next-gen Llm applications via multi-agent conversation framework. arXiv preprint: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2308.08155"},{"key":"9767_CR167","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctv1fx4h9c","volume-title":"The curse of bigness","author":"T Wu","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wu, T. (2018). The curse of bigness. Penguin Random House."},{"key":"9767_CR168","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wu, T. (2019). \u2018Is the first amendment obsolete? In D. E. Pozen (Ed.), The perilous public square: Structural threats to free expression today (pp. 15\u201361). Columbia University Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.36644\/mlr.117.3.first","DOI":"10.36644\/mlr.117.3.first"},{"key":"9767_CR169","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/0198297556.001.0001","volume-title":"Inclusion and democracy","author":"IM Young","year":"2002","unstructured":"Young, I. M. (2002). Inclusion and democracy. Oxford University Press."},{"key":"9767_CR170","unstructured":"Zaremba, W., Dhar, A., Ahmad, L., Eloundou, T., Santurkar, S., Agarwal, S., & Leung, J. (2023). Democratic inputs to AI. (OpenAI): https:\/\/openai.com\/blog\/democratic-inputs-to-ai"},{"key":"9767_CR171","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1162\/tacl_a_00632","volume":"12","author":"T Zhang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhang, T., Ladhak, F., Durmus, E., Liang, P., Mckeown, K., & Hashimoto, T. B. (2024). Benchmarking large language models for news summarization. Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 12, 39\u201357. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/tacl_a_00632","journal-title":"Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics"}],"container-title":["Minds and Machines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11023-026-09767-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11023-026-09767-y","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11023-026-09767-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T18:41:34Z","timestamp":1781635294000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s11023-026-09767-y"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]]},"references-count":168,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["9767"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11023-026-09767-y","relation":{},"ISSN":["1572-8641"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1572-8641","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]]},"assertion":[{"value":"12 March 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"22 January 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"23 February 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}}],"article-number":"12"}}