{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]],"date-time":"2026-02-02T20:13:43Z","timestamp":1770063223415,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,30]],"date-time":"2016-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1475193600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,30]],"date-time":"2016-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1475193600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003246","name":"Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["360-20-260"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["360-20-260"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003246","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Synthese"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>This paper argues that questions have an important role to to play in logic, both semantically and proof-theoretically. Semantically, we show that by generalizing the classical notion of entailment to questions, we can capture not only the standard relation of logical consequence, which holds between pieces of information, but also the relation of logical <jats:italic>dependency<\/jats:italic>, which holds between information <jats:italic>types<\/jats:italic>. Proof-theoretically, we show that questions may be used in inferences as placeholders for arbitrary information of a given type; by manipulating such placeholders, we may construct formal proofs of dependencies. Finally, we show that such proofs have a specific kind of constructive content: they do not just witness the existence of a certain dependency, but actually encode a method for transforming information of the types described by the assumptions into information of the type described by the conclusion.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11229-016-1221-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,30]],"date-time":"2016-09-30T19:11:19Z","timestamp":1475262679000},"page":"321-365","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Questions as information types"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"195","author":[{"given":"Ivano","family":"Ciardelli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,30]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"1221_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1007\/s11229-008-9415-6","volume":"167","author":"S Abramsky","year":"2009","unstructured":"Abramsky, S., & V\u00e4\u00e4n\u00e4nen, J. (2009). From IF to BI. Synthese, 167(2), 207\u2013230.","journal-title":"Synthese"},{"key":"1221_CR2","volume-title":"A new approach to the logical theory of interrogatives","author":"L \u00c5qvist","year":"1965","unstructured":"\u00c5qvist, L. (1965). A new approach to the logical theory of interrogatives. Uppsala: University of Uppsala."},{"key":"1221_CR3","unstructured":"Armstrong, W. W. (1974). Dependency structures of data base relationships. In Proceedings of the IFIP congress."},{"key":"1221_CR4","volume-title":"The logic of questions and answers","author":"N Belnap","year":"1976","unstructured":"Belnap, N., & Steel, T. (1976). The logic of questions and answers. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press."},{"issue":"19","key":"1221_CR5","first-page":"357","volume":"11","author":"EW Beth","year":"1956","unstructured":"Beth, E. W. (1956). Semantic construction of intuitionistic logic. Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Mededelingen, Nieuwe Reeks, 11(19), 357\u2013388.","journal-title":"Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Mededelingen, Nieuwe Reeks"},{"key":"1221_CR6","volume-title":"A generalized inquisitive semantics","author":"I Ciardelli","year":"2008","unstructured":"Ciardelli, I. (2008). A generalized inquisitive semantics. Term Paper: University of Amsterdam."},{"key":"1221_CR7","unstructured":"Ciardelli, I. (2009). Inquisitive semantics and intermediate logics. MSc Thesis, University of Amsterdam"},{"key":"1221_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-14287-1_24","volume-title":"Logic, language, and meaning: Selected papers from the seventeenth Amsterdam colloquium","author":"I Ciardelli","year":"2010","unstructured":"Ciardelli, I. (2010). A first-order inquisitive semantics. In M. Aloni, H. Bastiaanse, T. de Jager, & K. Schulz (Eds.), Logic, language, and meaning: Selected papers from the seventeenth Amsterdam colloquium (pp. 234\u2013243). Berlin: Springer."},{"key":"1221_CR9","unstructured":"Ciardelli, I. (2016). Dependency as question entailment. In S. Abramsky, J. Kontinen, J. V\u00e4\u00e4n\u00e4nen & H. Vollmer (Eds.), Dependence logic: Theory and applications (pp. 129\u2013181). Switzerland: Springer."},{"issue":"9","key":"1221_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1111\/lnc3.12037","volume":"7","author":"I Ciardelli","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ciardelli, I., Groenendijk, J., & Roelofsen, F. (2013a). Inquisitive semantics: A new notion of meaning. Language and Linguistics Compass, 7(9), 459\u2013476.","journal-title":"Language and Linguistics Compass"},{"key":"1221_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-36976-6_6","volume-title":"Logic, language, and computation: Revised selected papers from the ninth international Tbilisi symposium on logic, language, and computation","author":"I Ciardelli","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ciardelli, I., Groenendijk, J., & Roelofsen, F. (2013b). Towards a logic of information exchange: An inquisitive witness semantics. In G. Bezhanishvili, V. Marra, S. L\u00f6bner, & F. Richter (Eds.), Logic, language, and computation: Revised selected papers from the ninth international Tbilisi symposium on logic, language, and computation (pp. 51\u201372). Berlin: Springer."},{"issue":"6","key":"1221_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1689","DOI":"10.1007\/s11229-013-0352-7","volume":"192","author":"I Ciardelli","year":"2015","unstructured":"Ciardelli, I., Groenendijk, J., & Roelofsen, F. (2015). On the semantics and logic of declaratives and interrogatives. Synthese, 192(6), 1689\u20131728.","journal-title":"Synthese"},{"issue":"1","key":"1221_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1007\/s10992-010-9142-6","volume":"40","author":"I Ciardelli","year":"2011","unstructured":"Ciardelli, I., & Roelofsen, F. (2011). Inquisitive logic. Journal of Philosophical Logic, 40(1), 55\u201394.","journal-title":"Journal of Philosophical Logic"},{"issue":"6","key":"1221_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1643","DOI":"10.1007\/s11229-014-0404-7","volume":"192","author":"I Ciardelli","year":"2015","unstructured":"Ciardelli, I., & Roelofsen, F. (2015). Inquisitive dynamic epistemic logic. Synthese, 192(6), 1643\u20131687.","journal-title":"Synthese"},{"key":"1221_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.20.11.584","volume":"20","author":"H Curry","year":"1934","unstructured":"Curry, H. (1934). Functionality in combinatory logic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 20, 584\u2013590.","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"},{"issue":"3","key":"1221_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00485047","volume":"30","author":"K Fine","year":"1975","unstructured":"Fine, K. (1975). Vagueness, truth and logic. Synthese, 30(3), 265\u2013300.","journal-title":"Synthese"},{"key":"1221_CR17","volume-title":"Language, logic and meaning","author":"LTF Gamut","year":"1991","unstructured":"Gamut, L. T. F. (1991). Language, logic and meaning. Chicago: Chicago University Press."},{"key":"1221_CR18","first-page":"109","volume-title":"Semantics and linguistic theory","author":"J Groenendijk","year":"1999","unstructured":"Groenendijk, J. (1999). The logic of interrogation. In T. Matthews & D. Strolovitch (Eds.), Semantics and linguistic theory (pp. 109\u2013126). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press."},{"key":"1221_CR19","volume-title":"Seventh international Tbilisi symposium on language, logic, and computation","author":"J Groenendijk","year":"2009","unstructured":"Groenendijk, J. (2009). Inquisitive semantics: Two possibilities for disjunction. In P. Bosch, D. Gabelaia, & J. Lang (Eds.), Seventh international Tbilisi symposium on language, logic, and computation. Berlin: Springer."},{"key":"1221_CR20","unstructured":"Groenendijk, J. (2011). Erotetic languages and the inquisitive hierarchy. In a Festschrift for Martin Stokhof. \n                    http:\/\/dare.uva.nl\/document\/487828\n                    \n                  ."},{"key":"1221_CR21","unstructured":"Groenendijk, J., & Roelofsen, F. (2009). Inquisitive semantics and pragmatics. In Presented at the workshop on language, communication, and rational agency at Stanford. \n                    www.illc.uva.nl\/inquisitivesemantics\n                    \n                  ."},{"key":"1221_CR22","unstructured":"Groenendijk, J., & Roelofsen, F. (2013). Towards a suppositional inquisitive semantics. In M. Aher, D. Hole, E. Je\u0159\u00e1bek, & C. Kupke (Eds.), Logic, language, and computation: 10th international Tbilisi symposium on logic, language, and computation, TbiLLC 2013, Gudauri, Georgia, September 23\u201327, 2013. Revised Selected Papers (pp. 137\u2013156). Berlin: Springer."},{"key":"1221_CR23","unstructured":"Groenendijk, J., & Stokhof, M. (1984). Studies on the semantics of questions and the pragmatics of answers. PhD Thesis, University of Amsterdam."},{"key":"1221_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1086\/287779","volume":"28","author":"D Harrah","year":"1961","unstructured":"Harrah, D. (1961). A logic of questions and answers. Philosophy of Science, 28, 40\u201346.","journal-title":"Philosophy of Science"},{"key":"1221_CR25","volume-title":"Communication: A logical model","author":"D Harrah","year":"1963","unstructured":"Harrah, D. (1963). Communication: A logical model. Cambridge: MIT Press."},{"key":"1221_CR26","volume-title":"Knowledge and belief: An introduction to the logic of the two notions","author":"J Hintikka","year":"1962","unstructured":"Hintikka, J. (1962). Knowledge and belief: An introduction to the logic of the two notions. Cornell: Cornell University Press."},{"key":"1221_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-015-9313-7","volume-title":"Inquiry as inquiry: A logic of scientific discovery","author":"J Hintikka","year":"1999","unstructured":"Hintikka, J. (1999). Inquiry as inquiry: A logic of scientific discovery. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers."},{"key":"1221_CR28","unstructured":"Holliday, W. (2014). Partiality and adjointness in modal logic. In R. Gor\u00e9, B. Kooi, & A. Kurucz (Eds.), Advances in modal logic (AiML) (pp. 313\u2013332). London: College Publications."},{"key":"1221_CR29","unstructured":"Howard, W. (1980). The formulae-as-types notion of construction. In J. P. Seldin & J. R. Hindley (Eds.), To H. B. Curry: Essays on combinatory logic, lambda calculus and formalism (pp. 479\u2013490). New York: Academic Press."},{"issue":"3","key":"1221_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00293423","volume":"10","author":"L Humberstone","year":"1981","unstructured":"Humberstone, L. (1981). From worlds to possibilities. Journal of Philosophical Logic, 10(3), 313\u2013339.","journal-title":"Journal of Philosophical Logic"},{"key":"1221_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/S0049-237X(08)71685-9","volume-title":"Formal systems and recursive functions","author":"S Kripke","year":"1965","unstructured":"Kripke, S. (1965). Semantical analysis of intuitionistic logic I. In J. N. Crossley & M. A. Dummett (Eds.), Formal systems and recursive functions (pp. 92\u2013130). Amsterdam: North-Holland."},{"key":"1221_CR32","unstructured":"Mascarenhas, S. (2009). Inquisitive semantics and logic. Master Thesis, University of Amsterdam."},{"key":"1221_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1007\/s10849-005-9012-8","volume":"15","author":"R Nelken","year":"2006","unstructured":"Nelken, R., & Shan, C.-C. (2006). A modal interpretation of the logic of interrogation. Journal of Logic, Language, and Information, 15, 251\u2013271.","journal-title":"Journal of Logic, Language, and Information"},{"key":"1221_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Pun\u010doch\u00e1\u0159, V. (2015a). A generalization of inquisitive semantics. Journal of Philosophical Logic. doi:\n                    10.1007\/s10992-015-9379-1\n                    \n                  .","DOI":"10.1007\/s10992-015-9379-1"},{"issue":"3","key":"1221_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1007\/s10849-015-9219-2","volume":"24","author":"V Pun\u010doch\u00e1\u0159","year":"2015","unstructured":"Pun\u010doch\u00e1\u0159, V. (2015b). Weak negation in inquisitive semantics. Journal of Logic, Language, and Information, 24(3), 323\u2013355.","journal-title":"Journal of Logic, Language, and Information"},{"issue":"1","key":"1221_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1007\/s11229-013-0282-4","volume":"190","author":"F Roelofsen","year":"2013","unstructured":"Roelofsen, F. (2013). Algebraic foundations for the semantic treatment of inquisitive content. Synthese, 190(1), 79\u2013102.","journal-title":"Synthese"},{"key":"1221_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sano, K. (2009). Sound and complete tree-sequent calculus for inquisitive logic. In Proceedings of the sixteenth workshop on logic, language, information, and computation.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-02261-6_29"},{"key":"1221_CR38","unstructured":"Segoufin, L., & Vianu, V. (2005). Views and queries: Determinacy and rewriting. In Principles of database systems, (pp 49\u201360). New York: ACM."},{"key":"1221_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1163\/9780080470993_004","volume-title":"Questions in dynamic semantics","author":"B ten Cate","year":"2007","unstructured":"ten Cate, B., & Shan, C.-C. (2007). Axiomatizing Groenendijk\u2019s logic of interrogation. In M. Aloni, A. Butler, & P. Dekker (Eds.), Questions in dynamic semantics (pp. 63\u201382). Amsterdam: Elsevier."},{"key":"1221_CR40","first-page":"275","volume":"15","author":"P Tichy","year":"1978","unstructured":"Tichy, P. (1978). Questions, answers, and logic. American Philosophical Quarterly, 15, 275\u2013284.","journal-title":"American Philosophical Quarterly"},{"key":"1221_CR41","unstructured":"Troelstra, A., & van Dalen, D. (1988a). Constructivism in mathematics, an introduction, volume 1. In Studies in logic and the foundations of mathematics (Vol. 121). Amsterdam: North-Holland."},{"key":"1221_CR42","unstructured":"Troelstra, A., & van Dalen, D. (1988b) Constructivism in mathematics, an introduction, volume 2. In Studies in logic and the foundations of mathematics (Vol. 123). Amsterdam: North-Holland."},{"key":"1221_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511611193","volume-title":"Dependence logic: A new approach to independence friendly logic","author":"J V\u00e4\u00e4n\u00e4nen","year":"2007","unstructured":"V\u00e4\u00e4n\u00e4nen, J. (2007). Dependence logic: A new approach to independence friendly logic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"1221_CR44","volume-title":"New perspectives on games and interaction","author":"J V\u00e4\u00e4n\u00e4nen","year":"2008","unstructured":"V\u00e4\u00e4n\u00e4nen, J. (2008). Modal dependence logic. In K. R. Apt & R. van Rooij (Eds.), New perspectives on games and interaction. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press."},{"issue":"114","key":"1221_CR45","first-page":"225","volume":"29","author":"J van Benthem","year":"1986","unstructured":"van Benthem, J. (1986). Partiality and nonmonotonicity in classical logic. Logique et Analyse, 29(114), 225\u2013247.","journal-title":"Logique et Analyse"},{"key":"1221_CR46","unstructured":"Velissaratou, S. (2000). Conditional questions and which-interrogatives. MSc Thesis, University of Amsterdam."},{"key":"1221_CR47","volume-title":"Formal methods in the study of language","author":"F Veltman","year":"1981","unstructured":"Veltman, F. (1981). Data semantics. In J. Groenendijk, T. Janssen, & M. Stokhof (Eds.), Formal methods in the study of language. Amsterdam: Mathematical Centre."},{"key":"1221_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-015-8406-7","volume-title":"The posing of questions: Logical foundations of erotetic inferences","author":"A Wi\u015bniewski","year":"1995","unstructured":"Wi\u015bniewski, A. (1995). The posing of questions: Logical foundations of erotetic inferences (Vol. 252). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers."},{"issue":"6","key":"1221_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1585","DOI":"10.1007\/s11229-013-0355-4","volume":"192","author":"A Wi\u015bniewski","year":"2015","unstructured":"Wi\u015bniewski, A., & Leszczy\u0144ska-Jasion, D. (2015). Inferential erotetic logic meets inquisitive semantics. Synthese, 192(6), 1585\u20131608.","journal-title":"Synthese"},{"key":"1221_CR50","unstructured":"Yang, F. (2014). On extensions and variants of dependence logic: A study of intuitionistic connectives in the team semantics setting. PhD Thesis, University of Helsinki."}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1007\/s11229-019-02321-7","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,11]],"date-time":"2019-07-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1562803200000}}],"container-title":["Synthese"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11229-016-1221-y\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11229-016-1221-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11229-016-1221-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,16]],"date-time":"2020-09-16T21:47:17Z","timestamp":1600292837000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s11229-016-1221-y"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,30]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,1]]}},"alternative-id":["1221"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11229-016-1221-y","relation":{"correction":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1007\/s11229-019-02321-7","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["0039-7857","1573-0964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0039-7857","type":"print"},{"value":"1573-0964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,30]]},"assertion":[{"value":"26 September 2015","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"9 September 2016","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"30 September 2016","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"11 July 2019","order":4,"name":"change_date","label":"Change Date","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Correction","order":5,"name":"change_type","label":"Change Type","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Unfortunately, the Acknowledgements section is missing from the original publication.","order":6,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"11 July 2019","order":5,"name":"change_date","label":"Change Date","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Correction","order":5,"name":"change_type","label":"Change Type","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Unfortunately, the Acknowledgements section is missing from the original publication.","order":6,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}}]}}