{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]],"date-time":"2026-05-09T17:28:32Z","timestamp":1778347712814,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,15]],"date-time":"2023-06-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686787200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,15]],"date-time":"2023-06-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686787200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["109-2221-E-009-103-MY3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["109-2221-E-009-103-MY3"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Sign Process Syst"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>A novel device-free target tracking and following method is proposed based on both the received signal strength (RSS) and channel state information (CSI) of WiFi signals. Different from the typical device-free target tracking method, we consider a scenario where the device-free target under tracking is followed by a device that transmits the reference signals for location tracking of the target and the device itself. To meet the goal, a deep spatial-temporal neural network model is designed to learn and exploit the multi-resolution spatial and temporal features of RSSI and CSI for location tracking. By experimental results on our testbed, we show that the average positioning accuracy of the proposed method for the device-free target can reach 0.773 meters, which has a <jats:inline-formula><jats:alternatives><jats:tex-math>$$64\\%$$<\/jats:tex-math><mml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\">\n                  <mml:mrow>\n                    <mml:mn>64<\/mml:mn>\n                    <mml:mo>%<\/mml:mo>\n                  <\/mml:mrow>\n                <\/mml:math><\/jats:alternatives><\/jats:inline-formula> improvement over the accuracy of 2.164 meters of a typical device-free tracking method under the same experimental condition.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11265-023-01862-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,15]],"date-time":"2023-06-15T03:28:01Z","timestamp":1686799681000},"page":"1327-1340","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Device-Free Target Following with Deep Spatial and Temporal Structures of CSI"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"95","author":[{"given":"Ching-Lan","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chun-Hsien","family":"Ko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sau-Hsuan","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Heng-Shih","family":"Tseng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ronald Y.","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"1862_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Balo, F., & Tor\u01e7ul, B. (2016). Internet of things: A survey. International Journal of Applied Mathematics, Electronics and Computers, 104\u2013110. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18100\/ijamec.267197","DOI":"10.18100\/ijamec.267197"},{"key":"1862_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Yassin, A., Nasser, Y., Awad, M., Al-Dubai, A., Liu, R., Yuen, C., Raulefs, R., & Aboutanios, E. (2017). Recent advances in indoor localization: A survey on theoretical approaches and applications 19(2), 1327\u20131346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/COMST.2016.2632427","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2016.2632427"},{"issue":"3","key":"1862_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1974","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2017.2671454","volume":"19","author":"A Khalajmehrabadi","year":"2017","unstructured":"Khalajmehrabadi, A., Gatsis, N., & Akopian, D. (2017). Modern WLAN fingerprinting indoor positioning methods and deployment challenges. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 19(3), 1974\u20132002. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/COMST.2017.2671454","journal-title":"IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials"},{"issue":"1","key":"1862_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2015.2464084","volume":"18","author":"S He","year":"2016","unstructured":"He, S., & Chan, S.-H.G. (2016). Wi-Fi fingerprint-based indoor positioning: Recent advances and comparisons. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 18(1), 466\u2013490. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/COMST.2015.2464084","journal-title":"IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials"},{"key":"1862_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bahl, P., & Padmanabhan, V. N. (2000). Radar: an in-building RF-based user location and tracking system. In: Proceedings IEEE INFOCOM 2000 - Conference on Computer Communications, vol. 2, pp. 775\u2013784. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/INFCOM.2000.832252","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOM.2000.832252"},{"issue":"2","key":"1862_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1145\/2543581.2543592","volume":"46","author":"Z Yang","year":"2013","unstructured":"Yang, Z., Zhou, Z., & Liu, Y. (2013). From RSSI to CSI: Indoor localization via channel response. ACM Computing Surveys, 46(2), 25\u201312532. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2543581.2543592","journal-title":"ACM Computing Surveys"},{"issue":"4","key":"1862_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1331","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2015.2397437","volume":"64","author":"Z-H Wu","year":"2015","unstructured":"Wu, Z.-H., Han, Y., Chen, Y., & Liu, K. J. R. (2015). A time-reversal paradigm for indoor positioning system. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 64(4), 1331\u20131339. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TVT.2015.2397437","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology"},{"issue":"5","key":"1862_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTSP.2009.2029191","volume":"3","author":"S Mazuelas","year":"2009","unstructured":"Mazuelas, S., Bahillo, A., Lorenzo, R. M., Fernandez, P., Lago, F. A., Garcia, E., Blas, J., & Abril, E. J. (2009). Robust indoor positioning provided by real-time RSSI values in unmodified WLAN networks. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Signal Processing, 3(5), 821\u2013831. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/JSTSP.2009.2029191","journal-title":"IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Signal Processing"},{"issue":"1","key":"1862_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2020.3001127","volume":"21","author":"C-H Ko","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ko, C.-H., & Wu, S.-H. (2022). A framework for proactive indoor positioning in densely deployed WiFi networks. IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, 21(1), 1\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TMC.2020.3001127","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing"},{"issue":"13","key":"1862_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5141","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2900511","volume":"19","author":"L Zhang","year":"2019","unstructured":"Zhang, L., & Wang, H. (2019). 3D-WiFi: 3D localization with commodity WiFi. IEEE Sensors Journal, 19(13), 5141\u20135152. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2900511","journal-title":"IEEE Sensors Journal"},{"issue":"7","key":"1862_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1300","DOI":"10.1109\/TPDS.2012.214","volume":"24","author":"K Wu","year":"2013","unstructured":"Wu, K., Xiao, J., Yi, Y., Chen, D., Luo, X., & Ni, L. M. (2013). CSI-based indoor localization. IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems, 24(7), 1300\u20131309. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TPDS.2012.214","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems"},{"issue":"3","key":"1862_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1007\/s11276-006-0725-7","volume":"14","author":"M Youssef","year":"2008","unstructured":"Youssef, M., & Agrawala, A. (2008). The Horus location determination system. Wireless Networks, 14(3), 357\u2013374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11276-006-0725-7","journal-title":"Wireless Networks"},{"issue":"12","key":"1862_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1983","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2011.216","volume":"11","author":"C Feng","year":"2012","unstructured":"Feng, C., Au, W. S. A., Valaee, S., & Tan, Z. (2012). Received-signal-strength-based indoor positioning using compressive sensing. IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, 11(12), 1983\u20131993. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TMC.2011.216","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing"},{"issue":"1","key":"1862_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSE.2018.2871165","volume":"7","author":"X Wang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wang, X., Wang, X., & Mao, S. (2020). Deep convolutional neural networks for indoor localization with CSI images. IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering, 7(1), 316\u2013327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TNSE.2018.2871165","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering"},{"key":"1862_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wang, X., Gao, L., Mao, S., & Pandey, S. (2015). DeepFi: Deep learning for indoor fingerprinting using channel state information. In: IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference (WCNC), pp. 1666\u20131671. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/WCNC.2015.7127718","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNC.2015.7127718"},{"key":"1862_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wang, X., Wang, X., & Mao, S. (2017). ResLoc: Deep residual sharing learning for indoor localization with csi tensors. In: IEEE 28th Annual International Symposium on Personal, Indoor, and Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC), pp. 1\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/PIMRC.2017.8292236","DOI":"10.1109\/PIMRC.2017.8292236"},{"key":"1862_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Xiong, W., Zhu, Z., & Li, S. (2018). CSI-based high accuracy device free passive localization system. In: IEEE 88th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC-Fall), pp. 1\u20135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/VTCFall.2018.8690670","DOI":"10.1109\/VTCFall.2018.8690670"},{"key":"1862_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Dang, X., Si, X., Hao, Z., & Huang, Y. (2019). A novel passive indoor localization method by fusion CSI amplitude and phase information. Sensors, 19(4). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19040875","DOI":"10.3390\/s19040875"},{"key":"1862_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chen, K. M., & Chang, R. Y. (2020). Semi-supervised learning with GANs for device-free fingerprinting indoor localization. In: IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM), pp. 1\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/GLOBECOM42002.2020.9322456","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOBECOM42002.2020.9322456"},{"issue":"9","key":"1862_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4868","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.2965590","volume":"20","author":"Y Zhang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Qu, C., & Wang, Y. (2020). An indoor positioning method based on CSI by using features optimization mechanism with LSTM. IEEE Sensors Journal, 20(9), 4868\u20134878. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/JSEN.2020.2965590","journal-title":"IEEE Sensors Journal"},{"issue":"6","key":"1862_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10639","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2019.2940368","volume":"6","author":"MT Hoang","year":"2019","unstructured":"Hoang, M. T., Yuen, B., Dong, X., Lu, T., Westendorp, R., & Reddy, K. (2019). Recurrent neural networks for accurate RSSI indoor localization. IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 6(6), 10639\u201310651. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/JIOT.2019.2940368","journal-title":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal"},{"issue":"9","key":"1862_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8822","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2018.2850842","volume":"67","author":"L Zhang","year":"2018","unstructured":"Zhang, L., Gao, Q., Ma, X., Wang, J., Yang, T., & Wang, H. (2018). DeFi: Robust training-free device-free wireless localization with WiFi. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 67(9), 8822\u20138831. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TVT.2018.2850842","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology"},{"key":"1862_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Goldsmith, A. (2005). Wireless Communications. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/CBO9780511841224","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511841224"},{"key":"1862_CR24","unstructured":"Rappaport, T. S. (2002). Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd edn. Prentice Hall, Hoboken, New Jersey, U.S. https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.5555\/559977"},{"key":"1862_CR25","unstructured":"OpenWrt Project: Welcome to the OpenWrt Project. (2004 (accessed March 1, 2020)). https:\/\/openwrt.org\/"},{"key":"1862_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Xie, Y., Li, Z., & Li, M. (2015). Precise power delay profiling with commodity WiFi. In: Proceedings of the 21st Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking. MobiCom \u201915, pp. 53\u201364. ACM, New York, NY, USA. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2789168.2790124","DOI":"10.1145\/2789168.2790124"},{"key":"1862_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"IEEE standard for information technology\u2013 local and metropolitan area networks\u2013 specific requirements\u2013 part 11: Wireless lan medium access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) specifications amendment 5: Enhancements for higher throughput. Technical report, IEEE (2009). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/IEEESTD.2009.5307322","DOI":"10.1109\/IEEESTD.2009.5307322"},{"issue":"1","key":"1862_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2016.2628701","volume":"4","author":"C Chen","year":"2017","unstructured":"Chen, C., Chen, Y., Han, Y., Lai, H., & Liu, K. J. R. (2017). Achieving centimeter-accuracy indoor localization on WiFi platforms: A frequency hopping approach. IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 4(1), 111\u2013121. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/JIOT.2016.2628701","journal-title":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal"},{"issue":"6","key":"1862_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2016.2558659","volume":"3","author":"X Wang","year":"2016","unstructured":"Wang, X., Gao, L., & Mao, S. (2016). CSI phase fingerprinting for indoor localization with a deep learning approach. IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 3(6), 1113\u20131123. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/JIOT.2016.2558659","journal-title":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal"},{"issue":"7","key":"1862_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3453","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2019.2914194","volume":"18","author":"N Tadayon","year":"2019","unstructured":"Tadayon, N., Rahman, M. T., Han, S., Valaee, S., & Yu, W. (2019). Decimeter ranging with channel state information. IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, 18(7), 3453\u20133468. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TWC.2019.2914194","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications"},{"issue":"5","key":"1862_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4031","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2854825","volume":"5","author":"F Zhang","year":"2018","unstructured":"Zhang, F., Chen, C., Wang, B., Lai, H.-Q., Han, Y., & Liu, K. J. R. (2018). WiBall: A time-reversal focusing ball method for decimeter-accuracy indoor tracking. IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 5(5), 4031\u20134041. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2854825","journal-title":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal"},{"key":"1862_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bahdanau, D., Cho, K., & Bengio, Y. (2015). Neural machine translation by jointly learning to align and translate. In: 3rd International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR 2015). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/ARXIV.1409.0473","DOI":"10.48550\/ARXIV.1409.0473"},{"issue":"11","key":"1862_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2673","DOI":"10.1109\/78.650093","volume":"45","author":"M Schuster","year":"1997","unstructured":"Schuster, M., & Paliwal, K. K. (1997). Bidirectional recurrent neural networks. IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing, 45(11), 2673\u20132681. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/78.650093","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing"}],"container-title":["Journal of Signal Processing Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11265-023-01862-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11265-023-01862-y\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11265-023-01862-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]],"date-time":"2024-01-08T05:15:34Z","timestamp":1704690934000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s11265-023-01862-y"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,15]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,11]]}},"alternative-id":["1862"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11265-023-01862-y","relation":{},"ISSN":["1939-8018","1939-8115"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1939-8018","type":"print"},{"value":"1939-8115","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,15]]},"assertion":[{"value":"9 December 2022","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"26 March 2023","order":2,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"31 March 2023","order":3,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"15 June 2023","order":4,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"N.A.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics Approval"}},{"value":"N.A.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of Interest\/Competing Interests"}}]}}