{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T20:28:45Z","timestamp":1777667325263,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,1]],"date-time":"2023-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1677628800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,13]],"date-time":"2023-03-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1678665600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":12,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62177041"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62177041"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Intern. J. Comput.-Support. Collab. Learn"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Collaborative problem solving (CPS) enables student groups to complete learning tasks, construct knowledge, and solve problems. Previous research has argued the importance of examining the complexity of CPS, including its multimodality, dynamics, and synergy from the complex adaptive systems perspective. However, there is limited empirical research examining the adaptive and temporal characteristics of CPS, which may have led to an oversimplified representation of the real complexity of the CPS process. To expand our understanding of the nature of CPS in online interaction settings, the present research collected multimodal process and performance data (i.e., speech, computer screen recordings, concept map data) and proposed a three-layered analytical framework that integrated AI algorithms with learning analytics to analyze the regularity of groups\u2019 collaboration patterns. The results surfaced three types of collaborative patterns in groups, namely the behaviour-oriented collaborative pattern (Type 1) associated with medium-level performance, the communication-behaviour-synergistic collaborative pattern (Type 2) associated with high-level performance, and the communication-oriented collaborative pattern (Type 3) associated with low-level performance. This research further highlighted the multimodal, dynamic, and synergistic characteristics of groups\u2019 collaborative patterns to explain the emergence of an adaptive, self-organizing system during the CPS process. According to the empirical research results, theoretical, pedagogical, and analytical implications were discussed to guide the future research and practice of CPS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11412-023-09387-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,26]],"date-time":"2023-03-26T18:14:51Z","timestamp":1679854491000},"page":"39-66","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":91,"title":["An artificial intelligence-driven learning analytics method to examine the collaborative problem-solving process from the complex adaptive systems perspective"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4382-1381","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fan","family":"Ouyang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Weiqi","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Mutlu","family":"Cukurova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,13]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"9387_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/0049124100029001001","volume":"29","author":"A Abbott","year":"2000","unstructured":"Abbott, A., & Tsay, A. (2000). Sequence analysis and optimal matching methods in sociology: review and prospect. Sociological Methods & Research, 29(1), 3\u201333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0049124100029001001.","journal-title":"Sociological Methods & Research"},{"key":"9387_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Amon, M. J., Vrzakova, H., & D\u2019Mello, S. K. (2019). Beyond dyadic coordination: Multimodal behavioral irregularity in triads predicts facets of collaborative problem solving. Cognitive Science, 43(10), https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/cogs.12787. Article e12787.","DOI":"10.1111\/cogs.12787"},{"issue":"4","key":"9387_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327809JLS0904_2","volume":"9","author":"B Barron","year":"2000","unstructured":"Barron, B. (2000). Achieving coordination in collaborative problem-solving groups. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 9(4), 403\u2013436. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1207\/S15327809JLS0904_2.","journal-title":"Journal of the Learning Sciences"},{"key":"9387_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Blikstein, P. (2013). Multimodal learning analytics. In R. F. Kizilcec, C. Piech, E. Schneider, D. Suthers, K. Verbert, E. Duval, & X. Ochoa (Eds.), Proceedings of the third international conference on learning analytics and knowledge (pp.\u00a0102\u2013106). ACM. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2460296.2460316","DOI":"10.1145\/2460296.2460316"},{"issue":"2","key":"9387_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/s11412-019-09301-6","volume":"14","author":"M Borge","year":"2019","unstructured":"Borge, M., & Mercier, E. (2019). Towards a micro-ecological approach to CSCL. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 14(2), 219\u2013235. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11412-019-09301-6.","journal-title":"International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning"},{"issue":"1","key":"9387_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.3102\/0013189X018001032","volume":"18","author":"JS Brown","year":"1989","unstructured":"Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32\u201342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3102\/0013189X018001032.","journal-title":"Educational Researcher"},{"key":"9387_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Byrne, D., & Callaghan, G. (2014). Complexity theory and the social sciences. Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203519585"},{"key":"9387_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cress, U., Ros\u00e9, C., Wise, A., & Oshima, J. (2021). International handbook of computer-supported collaborative learning. Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-65291-3"},{"issue":"5","key":"9387_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1441","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13015","volume":"51","author":"M Cukurova","year":"2020","unstructured":"Cukurova, M., Giannakos, M., & Martinez-Maldonado, R. (2020). The promise and challenges of multimodal learning analytics. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(5), 1441\u20131449. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/bjet.13015.","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Technology"},{"key":"9387_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101838","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lindif.2020.101838","volume":"78","author":"PL Cur\u015feu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Cur\u015feu, P. L., Rusu, A., Maricu\u0163oiu, L. P., V\u00eerg\u0103, D., & M\u0103gurean, S. (2020). Identified and engaged: a multi-level dynamic model of identification with the group and performance in collaborative learning. Learning and Individual Differences, 78, 101838. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.lindif.2020.101838.","journal-title":"Learning and Individual Differences"},{"key":"9387_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1007\/s11412-014-9193-8","volume":"9","author":"CI Dam\u015fa","year":"2014","unstructured":"Dam\u015fa, C. I. (2014). The multi-layered nature of small-group learning: productive interactions in object-oriented collaboration. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 9, 247\u2013281. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11412-014-9193-8.","journal-title":"International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning"},{"issue":"1","key":"9387_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1108\/IJILT-04-2020-0046","volume":"38","author":"WF de Carvalho","year":"2020","unstructured":"de Carvalho, W. F., & Z\u00e1rate, L. E. (2020). A new local causal learning algorithm applied in learning analytics. The International Journal of Information and Learning Technology, 38(1), 103\u2013115. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/IJILT-04-2020-0046.","journal-title":"The International Journal of Information and Learning Technology"},{"key":"9387_CR13","unstructured":"Dillenbourg, P. (1999). What do you mean by collaborative learning? In P. Dillenbourg (Ed.), Collaborative-learning: cognitive and computational approaches (pp. 1\u201319). Elsevier."},{"issue":"5","key":"9387_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.12981","volume":"51","author":"M Dindar","year":"2020","unstructured":"Dindar, M., J\u00e4rvel\u00e4, S., & Haataja, E. (2020). What does physiological synchrony reveal about metacognitive experiences and group performance? British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(5), 1577\u20131596. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/bjet.12981.","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Technology"},{"issue":"3","key":"9387_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/S0959-440X(96)80056-X","volume":"6","author":"SR Eddy","year":"1996","unstructured":"Eddy, S. R. (1996). Hidden Markov models. Current Opinion in Structural Biology, 6(3), 361\u2013365. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0959-440X(96)80056-X.","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Structural Biology"},{"key":"9387_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113327","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2020.113327","volume":"264","author":"J Eisenberg-Guyot","year":"2020","unstructured":"Eisenberg-Guyot, J., Peckham, T., Andrea, S. B., Oddo, V., Seixas, N., & Hajat, A. (2020). Life-course trajectories of employment quality and health in the US: a multichannel sequence analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 264, 113327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.socscimed.2020.113327.","journal-title":"Social Science & Medicine"},{"key":"9387_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Eloy, L., Stewart, E. B., Jean Amon, A., Reinhardt, M., Michaels, C., Sun, A., & D\u2019Mello, C. (2019). S. Modeling team-level multimodal dynamics during multiparty collaboration. In W. Gao, H. M. L. Meng, M. Turk. R. Fussell, B. Schuller, Y. Song, & K. Yu (Eds.), 2019 International conference on multimodal interaction (pp.\u00a0244\u2013258). ACM. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3340555.3353748","DOI":"10.1145\/3340555.3353748"},{"key":"9387_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Farrokhnia, M., Pijeira-D\u00edaz, H. J., Noroozi, O., & Hatami, J. (2019). Computer-supported collaborative concept mapping: the effects of different instructional designs on conceptual understanding and knowledge co-construction. Computers & Education, 142, Article 103640. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2019.103640.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2019.103640"},{"issue":"1","key":"9387_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025575","volume":"13","author":"J Felsenstein","year":"1996","unstructured":"Felsenstein, J., & Churchill, G. A. (1996). A hidden Markov Model approach to variation among sites in rate of evolution. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 13(1), 93\u2013104. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025575.","journal-title":"Molecular Biology and Evolution"},{"key":"9387_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007469218079","volume":"32","author":"S Fine","year":"1998","unstructured":"Fine, S., Singer, Y., & Tishby, N. (1998). The hierarchical hidden Markov model: analysis and applications. Machine Learning, 32, 41\u201362. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023\/A:1007469218079.","journal-title":"Machine Learning"},{"issue":"4","key":"9387_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1080\/14639221003729128","volume":"11","author":"SM Fiore","year":"2010","unstructured":"Fiore, S. M., Smith-Jentsch, K. A., Salas, E., Warner, N., & Letsky, M. (2010). Toward an understanding of macrocognition in teams: developing and defining complex collaborative processes and products. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomic Science, 11(4), 250\u2013271. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/14639221003729128.","journal-title":"Theoretical Issues in Ergonomic Science"},{"issue":"4","key":"9387_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v040.i04","volume":"40","author":"A Gabadinho","year":"2011","unstructured":"Gabadinho, A., Ritschard, G., M\u00fcller, N. S., & Studer, M. (2011). Analyzing and visualizing state sequences in R with TraMineR. Journal of Statistical Software, 40(4), 1\u201337. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18637\/jss.v040.i04.","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"issue":"1","key":"9387_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/J.1467-9531.2010.01227.X","volume":"40","author":"JA Gauthier","year":"2010","unstructured":"Gauthier, J. A., Widmer, E. D., Bucher, P., & Notredame, C. (2010). Multichannel sequence analysis applied to social data. Sociological Methodology, 40(1), 1\u201338. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/J.1467-9531.2010.01227.X.","journal-title":"Sociological Methodology"},{"issue":"5","key":"9387_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720819852791","volume":"62","author":"JC Gorman","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gorman, J. C., Grimm, D. A., Stevens, R. H., Galloway, T., Willemsen-Dunlap, A. M., & Halpin, D. J. (2020). Measuring real-time team cognition during team training. Human Factors, 62(5), 825\u2013860. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0018720819852791.","journal-title":"Human Factors"},{"issue":"3","key":"9387_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v088.i03","volume":"88","author":"S Helske","year":"2019","unstructured":"Helske, S., & Helske, J. (2019). Mixture hidden Markov models for sequence data: the seqHMM Package in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 88(3), 1\u201332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18637\/jss.v088.i03.","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"9387_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1023\/B:EDPR.0000034022.16470.f3","volume":"16","author":"CE Hmelo-Silver","year":"2004","unstructured":"Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: what and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16, 235\u2013266. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023\/B:EDPR.0000034022.16470.f3.","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"9387_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hmelo-Silver, C. E., & DeSimone, C. (2013). Problem-based learning: an instructional model of collaborative learning. In C. Hmelo-Silver, C. A. Chinn, C. Chan, & A. O\u2019Donnell (Eds.), The international handbook of collaborative learning. Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203837290"},{"key":"9387_CR28","unstructured":"Holland, J. H. (1996). Hidden order: how adaptation builds complexity. Basic Books."},{"key":"9387_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00229-9","volume":"31","author":"HU Hoppe","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hoppe, H. U., Doberstein, D., & Hecking, T. (2021). Using sequence analysis to determine the well-functioning of small groups in large online courses. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 31, 680\u2013699. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40593-020-00229-9.","journal-title":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education"},{"issue":"2","key":"9387_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1080\/00461520.2016.1166963","volume":"51","author":"MJ Jacobson","year":"2016","unstructured":"Jacobson, M. J., Kapur, M., & Reimann, P. (2016). Conceptualizing debates in learning and educational research: toward a complex systems conceptual framework of learning. Educational Psychologist, 51(2), 210\u2013218. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/00461520.2016.1166963.","journal-title":"Educational Psychologist"},{"key":"9387_CR31","unstructured":"Janssen, J., Cress, U., Erkens, G., & Kirschner, P. A. (2013). Multilevel analysis for the analysis of collaborative learning. In C. E. Hmelo-Silver, C. A. Chinn, C. K. K. Chan, & A. M. O\u2019Donnell (Eds.), The international handbook of collaborative learning (pp. 124\u2013137). Routledge."},{"key":"9387_CR32","unstructured":"Jeong, H. (2013). Verbal data analysis for understanding interactions. In C. E. Hmelo-Silver, C. K. K. Chan, C. Chinn, & A. M. O\u2019Donnell (Eds.), International handbook of collaborative learning (pp. 168\u2013181). Routledge."},{"issue":"3","key":"9387_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-014-9288-9","volume":"27","author":"C Kaendler","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kaendler, C., Wiedmann, M., Rummel, N., & Spada, H. (2015). Teacher competencies for the implementation of collaborative learning in the classroom: a framework and research. Educational Psychology Review, 27(3), 1\u201332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10648-014-9288-9.","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"9387_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Khan, S. M. (2017). Multimodal behavioral analytics in intelligent learning and assessment systems. In A. A. von Davier, M. Zhu, & P. C. Kyllonen (Eds.), Innovative Assessment of Collaboration (pp.\u00a0173\u2013184). Springer. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-33261-1_11","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-33261-1_11"},{"key":"9387_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koopmans, M., & Stamovlasis, D. (2016). Complex dynamical systems in education. Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-27577-2"},{"issue":"3","key":"9387_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1093\/hcr\/30.3.411","volume":"30","author":"K Krippendorff","year":"2004","unstructured":"Krippendorff, K. (2004). Reliability in content analysis: some common misconceptions and recommendations. Human Communication Research, 30(3), 411\u2013433. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/hcr\/30.3.411.","journal-title":"Human Communication Research"},{"key":"9387_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1007\/s11412-020-09321-7","volume":"15","author":"D Kuhn","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kuhn, D., Capon, N., & Lai, H. (2020). Talking about group (but not individual) process aids group performance. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 15, 179\u2013192. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11412-020-09321-7.","journal-title":"International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning"},{"key":"9387_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2014.06.004","volume":"78","author":"K Kwon","year":"2014","unstructured":"Kwon, K., Liu, Y. H., & Johnson, L. P. (2014). Group regulation and social-emotional interactions observed in computer supported collaborative learning: comparison between good vs. poor collaborators. Computers & Education, 78, 185\u2013200. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2014.06.004.","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"9387_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093440","volume":"32","author":"JS Lansing","year":"2003","unstructured":"Lansing, J. S. (2003). Complex adaptive systems. Annual Review of Anthropology, 32(1), 183\u2013204. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093440.","journal-title":"Annual Review of Anthropology"},{"key":"9387_CR40","unstructured":"Maechler, M., Rousseeuw, P., Struyf, A., Hubert, M., & Hornik, K. (2015). Cluster: Cluster analysis basics and extensions. [Software]. R package version 2.0.3."},{"key":"9387_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cedpsych.2017.01.009","volume":"49","author":"J Malmberg","year":"2017","unstructured":"Malmberg, J., J\u00e4rvel\u00e4, S., & J\u00e4rvenoja, H. (2017). Capturing temporal and sequential patterns of self-, co-, and socially shared regulation in the context of collaborative learning. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 49, 160\u2013174. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cedpsych.2017.01.009.","journal-title":"Contemporary Educational Psychology"},{"key":"9387_CR42","unstructured":"Marquart, C. L., Hinojosa, C., Swiecki, Z., Eagan, B., & Shaffer, D. W. (2018). Epistemic network analysis [Software]. Version 1.6.0. Website: epistemicnetwork.org."},{"key":"9387_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Medina, R., & Stahl, G. (2021). Analysis of group practices. In U. Cress, C. Ros\u00e9, A. Wise, & J. Oshima (Eds.), International handbook of computer-supported collaborative learning (pp. 199\u2013218). Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-65291-3_11"},{"key":"9387_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mitchell, M. (2009). Complexity: a guided tour. Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195124415.001.0001"},{"key":"9387_CR45","unstructured":"Morrison, K. R. B. (2002). School leadership and complexity theory. Routledge."},{"issue":"23","key":"9387_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/s20236856","volume":"20","author":"S Mu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mu, S., Cui, M., & Huang, X. (2020). Multimodal data fusion in learning analytics: a systematic review. Sensors (Basel, Switzerland), 20(23), 6856, 1\u201326. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20236856.","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)"},{"issue":"3","key":"9387_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1007\/s00357-014-9161-z","volume":"31","author":"F Murtagh","year":"2014","unstructured":"Murtagh, F., & Legendre, P. (2014). Ward\u2019s hierarchical agglomerative clustering method: which algorithms implement Ward\u2019s criterion? Journal of Classification, 31(3), 274\u2013295. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00357-014-9161-z.","journal-title":"Journal of Classification"},{"key":"9387_CR48","unstructured":"Novak, J. D., & Ca\u00f1as, A. J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them. Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition. http:\/\/cmap.ihmc.us\/Publications\/ResearchPapers\/TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.pdf."},{"key":"9387_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Donnell, A. M., & Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2013). Introduction: what is collaborative learning? An overview. In C. E. Hmelo-Silver, C. A. Chinn, C. K. K. Chan, & A. M. O\u2019Donnell (Eds.), The international handbook of collaborative learning (pp. 93\u2013111). Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203837290"},{"issue":"5","key":"9387_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1527","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.12982","volume":"51","author":"JK Olsen","year":"2020","unstructured":"Olsen, J. K., Sharma, K., Rummel, N., & Aleven, V. (2020). Temporal analysis of multimodal data to predict collaborative learning outcomes. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(5), 1527\u20131547. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/bjet.12982.","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Technology"},{"issue":"7","key":"9387_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.1177\/0735633121996477","volume":"59","author":"F Ouyang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ouyang, F. (2021). Using three social network analysis approaches to understand computer-supported collaborative learning. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 59(7), 1401\u20131424. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0735633121996477.","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Computing Research"},{"issue":"3","key":"9387_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1396","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.12647","volume":"50","author":"F Ouyang","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ouyang, F., & Chang, Y. H. (2019). The relationships between social participatory roles and cognitive engagement levels in online discussions. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(3), 1396\u20131414. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/bjet.12647.","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Technology"},{"issue":"2","key":"9387_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1007\/s11251-020-09507-4","volume":"48","author":"F Ouyang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ouyang, F., Chang, Y. H., Scharber, C., Jiao, P., & Huang, T. (2020). Examining the instructor-student collaborative partnership in an online learning community course. Instructional Science, 48(2), 183\u2013204. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11251-020-09507-4.","journal-title":"Instructional Science"},{"issue":"35","key":"9387_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239-021-00273-y","volume":"18","author":"F Ouyang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ouyang, F., Chen, Z., Cheng, M., Tang, Z., & Su, C. Y. (2021). Exploring the effect of three scaffoldings on the collaborative problem-solving processes in China\u2019s higher education. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 18(35), 1\u201322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s41239-021-00273-y.","journal-title":"International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"9387_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40594-022-00361-z","volume":"9","author":"F Ouyang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ouyang, F., Dai, X., & Chen, S. (2022). Applying multimodal learning analytics to examine the immediate and delayed effects of instructor scaffoldings on small groups\u2019 collaborative programming. International Journal of STEM Education, 9(1), 1\u201321. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40594-022-00361-z.","journal-title":"International Journal of STEM Education"},{"key":"9387_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iheduc.2017.07.002","volume":"35","author":"F Ouyang","year":"2017","unstructured":"Ouyang, F., & Scharber, C. (2017). The influences of an experienced instructor\u2019s discussion design and facilitation on an online learning community development: a social network analysis study. The Internet and Higher Education, 35, 34\u201347. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.iheduc.2017.07.002.","journal-title":"The Internet and Higher Education"},{"key":"9387_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107650","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2023.107650","volume":"142","author":"F Ouyang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ouyang, F., Wu, M., Zhang, L., Xu, W., Zheng, L., & Cukurova, M. (2023). Making strides towards AI-supported regulation of learning in collaborative knowledge construction. Computers in Human Behavior, 142, 107650. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chb.2023.107650.","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"issue":"4","key":"9387_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"930","DOI":"10.1177\/07356331211057283","volume":"60","author":"F Ouyang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ouyang, F., & Xu, W. (2022). The effects of three instructor participatory roles on a small group\u2019s collaborative concept mapping. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 60(4), 930\u2013959. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/07356331211057283.","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Computing Research"},{"key":"9387_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2014.11.019","volume":"82","author":"JBH Park","year":"2015","unstructured":"Park, J. B. H., Schallert, D. L., Sanders, A. J. Z., Williams, K. M., Seo, E., Yu, L. T., Vogler, J. S., Song, K., Williamson, Z. H., & Knox, M. C. (2015). Does it matter if the teacher is there? A teacher\u2019s contribution to emerging patterns of interactions in online classroom discussions. Computers & Education, 82, 315\u2013328. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2014.11.019.","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"issue":"5","key":"9387_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2011.12.004","volume":"31","author":"VC Ramenzoni","year":"2012","unstructured":"Ramenzoni, V. C., Riley, M. A., Shockley, K., & Baker, A. A. (2012). Interpersonal and intrapersonal coordinative modes for joint and single task performance. Human Movement Science, 31(5), 1253\u20131267. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.humov.2011.12.004.","journal-title":"Human Movement Science"},{"key":"9387_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2015.01.026","volume":"52","author":"TK Rogat","year":"2015","unstructured":"Rogat, T. K., & Adams-Wiggins, K. R. (2015). Interrelation between regulatory and socioemotional processes within collaborative groups characterized by facilitative and directive other-regulation. Computers in Human Behavior, 52, 589\u2013600. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chb.2015.01.026.","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"key":"9387_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Roschelle, J., & Teasley, S. D. (1995). The construction of shared knowledge in collaborative problem solving. In C. O\u2019Malley (Eds.), Computer supported collaborative learning (pp.\u00a069\u201397). Springer. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-642-85098-1_5","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-85098-1_5"},{"key":"9387_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Saqr, M., & L\u00f3pez-Pernas, S. (2022). How CSCL roles emerge, persist, transition, and evolve over time: a four-year longitudinal study. Computers & Education, 189, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2022.104581. Article 104581.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2022.104581"},{"key":"9387_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Saqr, M., Peeters, W., & Viberg, O. (2021). The relational, co-temporal, contemporaneous, and longitudinal dynamics of self-regulation for academic writing. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 16(1), 1\u201322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s41039-021-00175-7Schindler, M., & Bakker, A. (2020). Affective field during collaborative problem posing and problem solving: A case study. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 105(3), 303\u2013324. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10649-020-09973-0","DOI":"10.1186\/s41039-021-00175-7"},{"issue":"3","key":"9387_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.18608\/jla.2016.33.3","volume":"3","author":"DW Shaffer","year":"2016","unstructured":"Shaffer, D. W., Collier, W., & Ruis, A. R. (2016). A tutorial on epistemic network analysis: analyzing the structure of connections in cognitive, social, and interaction data. Journal of Learning Analytics, 3(3), 9\u201345. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18608\/jla.2016.33.3.","journal-title":"Journal of Learning Analytics"},{"issue":"5","key":"9387_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1450","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.12993","volume":"51","author":"K Sharma","year":"2020","unstructured":"Sharma, K., & Giannakos, M. (2020). Multimodal data capabilities for learning: what can multimodal data tell us about learning? British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(5), 1450\u20131484. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/bjet.12993.","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Technology"},{"key":"9387_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stahl, G. (2009). Studying virtual math teams. Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-0228-3"},{"issue":"1","key":"9387_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11412-013-9169-0","volume":"8","author":"G Stahl","year":"2013","unstructured":"Stahl, G. (2013). Learning across levels. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 8(1), 1\u201312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11412-013-9169-0.","journal-title":"International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning"},{"key":"9387_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stahl, G. (2017). Group practices: A new way of viewing CSCL. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 12(1), 113\u2013126.10.1007\/s11412-017-9251-0","DOI":"10.1007\/s11412-017-9251-0"},{"key":"9387_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Stahl, G., & Hakkarainen, K. (2021). Theories of CSCL. In U. Cress, C. Ros\u00e9, A. F. Wise, & J. Oshima (Eds.), International handbook of computer-supported collaborative learning (pp.\u00a023\u201344). Springer. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-65291-3_2","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-65291-3_2"},{"issue":"6","key":"9387_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3047","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.12875","volume":"50","author":"FR Sullivan","year":"2019","unstructured":"Sullivan, F. R., & Keith, P. K. (2019). Exploring the potential of natural language processing to support microgenetic analysis of collaborative learning discussions. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(6), 3047\u20133063. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/bjet.12875.","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Technology"},{"key":"9387_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-010-9127-6","volume":"22","author":"J Van de Pol","year":"2010","unstructured":"Van de Pol, J., Volman, M., & Beishuizen, J. (2010). Scaffolding in teacher\u2013student interaction: a decade of research. Educational Psychology Review, 22, 271\u2013296. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10648-010-9127-6.","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"issue":"1","key":"9387_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2015.09.006","volume":"90","author":"A Van Leeuwen","year":"2015","unstructured":"Van Leeuwen, A., Janssen, J., Erkens, G., & Brekelmans, M. (2015). Teacher regulation of cognitive activities during student collaboration: Effects of learning analytics. Computers & Education, 90(1), 80\u201394. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2015.09.006.","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"issue":"2","key":"9387_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1007\/s11412-017-9255-9","volume":"12","author":"JS Vogler","year":"2017","unstructured":"Vogler, J. S., Schallert, D. L., Jordan, M. E., Song, K., Sanders, A. J., Chiang, T., & Yu, Y. H. Y., L. T (2017). Life history of a topic in an online discussion: a complex systems theory perspective on how one message attracts class members to create meaning collaboratively. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 12(2), 173\u2013194. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11412-017-9255-9.","journal-title":"International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning"},{"key":"9387_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Vrzakova, H., Amon, M. J., Stewart, A., Duran, N. D., & D\u2019Mello, S. K. (2020). Focused or stuck together: Multimodal patterns reveal triads\u2019 performance in collaborative problem solving. In C. Rensing, & H. Drachsler (Eds.), Proceedings of the tenth international conference on learning analytics & knowledge (pp.\u00a0295\u2013304). ACM. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3375462.3375467","DOI":"10.1145\/3375462.3375467"},{"key":"9387_CR76","unstructured":"Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press."},{"key":"9387_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iheduc.2017.04.003","volume":"34","author":"M Wang","year":"2017","unstructured":"Wang, M., Cheng, B., Chen, J., Mercer, N., & Kirschner, P. A. (2017). The use of web-based collaborative concept mapping to support group learning and interaction in an online environment. Internet and Higher Education, 34, 28\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.iheduc.2017.04.003.","journal-title":"Internet and Higher Education"},{"key":"9387_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2018.07.007","volume":"79","author":"TJ Wiltshire","year":"2019","unstructured":"Wiltshire, T. J., Steffensen, S. V., & Fiore, S. M. (2019). Multiscale movement coordination dynamics in collaborative team problem solving. Applied Ergonomics, 79, 143\u2013151. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.apergo.2018.07.007.","journal-title":"Applied Ergonomics"},{"key":"9387_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wise, A. F., Knight, S., & Shum, S. B. (2021). Collaborative learning analytics. In U. Cress, C. Ros\u00e9, A. F. Wise, & J. Oshima (Eds.), International handbook of computer-supported collaborative learning (pp.\u00a0425\u2013444). Springer. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-65291-3_23","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-65291-3_23"},{"key":"9387_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4195","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-021-10774-y","volume":"27","author":"W Xu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Xu, W., & Ouyang, F. (2022). A systematic review of AI role in the educational system based on a proposed conceptual framework. Education and Information Technologies, 27, 4195\u20134223. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10639-021-10774-y.","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"issue":"1","key":"9387_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1007\/s11412-013-9164-5","volume":"8","author":"A Zemel","year":"2013","unstructured":"Zemel, A., & Koschmann, T. (2013). Recalibrating reference within a dual-space interaction environment. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 8(1), 65\u201387. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11412-013-9164-5.","journal-title":"International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning"},{"issue":"3","key":"9387_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-007-9040-y","volume":"55","author":"J Zhang","year":"2007","unstructured":"Zhang, J. (2007). A cultural look at information and communication technologies in eastern education. Educational Technology Research and Development, 55(3), 301\u2013314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11423-007-9040-y.","journal-title":"Educational Technology Research and Development"},{"key":"9387_CR83","first-page":"495","volume-title":"The international handbook of collaborative learning","author":"J Zhang","year":"2013","unstructured":"Zhang, J. (2013). Chapter 28: collaboration, technology, and culture. In C. E. Hmelo-Silver, C. A. Chinn, C. K. K. Chan, & A. M. O\u2019Donnell (Eds.), The international handbook of collaborative learning (pp. 495\u2013508). New York, NY: Routledge."},{"issue":"3","key":"9387_CR84","first-page":"174","volume":"24","author":"L Zheng","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zheng, L., Zhong, L., Niu, J., Long, M., & Zhao, J. (2021). Effects of personalized intervention on collaborative knowledge building, group performance, socially shared metacognitive regulation, and cognitive load in computer-supported collaborative learning. Educational Technology & Society, 24(3), 174\u2013193. https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/27032864.","journal-title":"Educational Technology & Society"},{"key":"9387_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/J.LCSI.2016.02.003","volume":"9","author":"SJ Zuiker","year":"2016","unstructured":"Zuiker, S. J., Anderson, K. T., Jordan, M. E., & Stewart, O. G. (2016). Complementary lenses: using theories of situativity and complexity to understand collaborative learning as systems-level social activity. Learning Culture and Social Interaction, 9, 80\u201394. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/J.LCSI.2016.02.003.","journal-title":"Learning Culture and Social Interaction"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1007\/s11412-023-09391-3","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,10]],"date-time":"2023-04-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1681084800000}}],"container-title":["International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11412-023-09387-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11412-023-09387-z\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11412-023-09387-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,9]],"date-time":"2023-12-09T12:06:40Z","timestamp":1702123600000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s11412-023-09387-z"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["9387"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11412-023-09387-z","relation":{"is-referenced-by":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1007\/s42979-025-04220-w","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1556-1607","1556-1615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1556-1607","type":"print"},{"value":"1556-1615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]},"assertion":[{"value":"21 January 2022","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"3 August 2022","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"13 March 2023","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"10 April 2023","order":4,"name":"change_date","label":"Change Date","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Correction","order":5,"name":"change_type","label":"Change Type","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"A Correction to this paper has been published:","order":6,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11412-023-09391-3","URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11412-023-09391-3","order":7,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Authors have no competing interests to declare.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing Interest"}}]}}