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Recently, endoscopic radio-guided cancer resection has been introduced where a novel tethered laparoscopic gamma detector can be used to determine the location of tracer activity, which can complement preoperative nuclear imaging data and endoscopic imaging. However, these probes do not clearly indicate where on the tissue surface the activity originates, making localization of pathological sites difficult and increasing the mental workload of the surgeons. Therefore, a robust real-time gamma probe tracking system integrated with augmented reality is proposed.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>A dual-pattern marker has been attached to the gamma probe, which combines chessboard vertices and circular dots for higher detection accuracy. Both patterns are detected simultaneously based on blob detection and the pixel intensity-based vertices detector and used to estimate the pose of the probe. Temporal information is incorporated into the framework to reduce tracking failure. Furthermore, we utilized the 3D point cloud generated from structure from motion to find the intersection between the probe axis and the tissue surface. When presented as an augmented image, this can provide visual feedback to the surgeons.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>The method has been validated with ground truth probe pose data generated using the OptiTrack system. When detecting the orientation of the pose using circular dots and chessboard dots alone, the mean error obtained is <jats:inline-formula><jats:alternatives><jats:tex-math>$$0.05^{\\circ }$$<\/jats:tex-math><mml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\">\n<mml:mrow>\n<mml:mn>0<\/mml:mn>\n<mml:mo>.<\/mml:mo>\n<mml:msup>\n<mml:mn>05<\/mml:mn>\n<mml:mo>\u2218<\/mml:mo>\n<\/mml:msup>\n<\/mml:mrow>\n<\/mml:math><\/jats:alternatives><\/jats:inline-formula> and <jats:inline-formula><jats:alternatives><jats:tex-math>$$0.06^{\\circ }$$<\/jats:tex-math><mml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\">\n<mml:mrow>\n<mml:mn>0<\/mml:mn>\n<mml:mo>.<\/mml:mo>\n<mml:msup>\n<mml:mn>06<\/mml:mn>\n<mml:mo>\u2218<\/mml:mo>\n<\/mml:msup>\n<\/mml:mrow>\n<\/mml:math><\/jats:alternatives><\/jats:inline-formula>, respectively. As for the translation, the mean error for each pattern is 1.78\u00a0mm and 1.81\u00a0mm. The detection limits for pitch, roll and yaw are <jats:inline-formula><jats:alternatives><jats:tex-math>$$360^{\\circ }, 360^{\\circ }$$<\/jats:tex-math><mml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\">\n<mml:mrow>\n<mml:msup>\n<mml:mn>360<\/mml:mn>\n<mml:mo>\u2218<\/mml:mo>\n<\/mml:msup>\n<mml:mo>,<\/mml:mo>\n<mml:msup>\n<mml:mn>360<\/mml:mn>\n<mml:mo>\u2218<\/mml:mo>\n<\/mml:msup>\n<\/mml:mrow>\n<\/mml:math><\/jats:alternatives><\/jats:inline-formula> and <jats:inline-formula><jats:alternatives><jats:tex-math>$$8^{\\circ }$$<\/jats:tex-math><mml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\">\n<mml:msup>\n<mml:mn>8<\/mml:mn>\n<mml:mo>\u2218<\/mml:mo>\n<\/mml:msup>\n<\/mml:math><\/jats:alternatives><\/jats:inline-formula>\u2013<jats:inline-formula><jats:alternatives><jats:tex-math>$$82^{\\circ }\\cup 188^{\\circ }$$<\/jats:tex-math><mml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\">\n<mml:mrow>\n<mml:msup>\n<mml:mn>82<\/mml:mn>\n<mml:mo>\u2218<\/mml:mo>\n<\/mml:msup>\n<mml:mo>\u222a<\/mml:mo>\n<mml:msup>\n<mml:mn>188<\/mml:mn>\n<mml:mo>\u2218<\/mml:mo>\n<\/mml:msup>\n<\/mml:mrow>\n<\/mml:math><\/jats:alternatives><\/jats:inline-formula>\u2013<jats:inline-formula><jats:alternatives><jats:tex-math>$$352^{\\circ }$$<\/jats:tex-math><mml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\">\n<mml:msup>\n<mml:mn>352<\/mml:mn>\n<mml:mo>\u2218<\/mml:mo>\n<\/mml:msup>\n<\/mml:math><\/jats:alternatives><\/jats:inline-formula> .<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>The performance evaluation results show that this dual-pattern marker can provide high detection rates, as well as more accurate pose estimation and a larger workspace than the previously proposed hybrid markers. The augmented reality will be used to provide visual feedback to the surgeons on the location of the affected lymph nodes or tumor.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11548-020-02205-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,17]],"date-time":"2020-06-17T09:02:46Z","timestamp":1592384566000},"page":"1389-1397","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Tracking and visualization of the sensing area for a tethered laparoscopic gamma probe"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4421-652X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Baoru","family":"Huang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Ya-Yen","family":"Tsai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Cartucho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Kunal","family":"Vyas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"David","family":"Tuch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Stamatia","family":"Giannarou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Daniel S.","family":"Elson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"2205_CR1","unstructured":"C.\u00a0R. 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The other authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}},{"value":"This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethical approval"}},{"value":"This article does not contain patient data.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Informed consent"}}]}}