{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T18:16:41Z","timestamp":1777486601902,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,4]],"date-time":"2024-01-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704326400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,4]],"date-time":"2024-01-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704326400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100018960","name":"National Technical University of Athens","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100018960","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Real-Time Image Proc"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Star trackers are crucial for satellite orientation. Improving their efficiency via reconfigurable COTS HW accommodates NewSpace missions. The current work considers SoC FPGAs to leverage both increased reprogramming and high-performance capabilities. Based on a custom sensor+FPGA system, we develop and optimize the algorithmic chain of star tracking by focusing on the acceleration of the image processing parts. We combine multiple circuit design techniques, such as low-level pipelining, word-length optimization, HW\/SW co-processing, and parametric HLS+HDL coding, to fine-tune our implementation on Zynq-7020 FPGA when using real and synthetic input data. Overall, with 4-MPixel images, we achieve more than 24 FPS throughput by accelerating &gt;95% of the computation by 8.9<jats:inline-formula><jats:alternatives><jats:tex-math>$$\\times$$<\/jats:tex-math><mml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\">\n                  <mml:mo>\u00d7<\/mml:mo>\n                <\/mml:math><\/jats:alternatives><\/jats:inline-formula>, at system level, while preserving the original SW accuracy and meeting the real-time requirements of the application.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11554-023-01391-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,4]],"date-time":"2024-01-04T17:02:02Z","timestamp":1704387722000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["HW\/SW co-design on embedded SoC FPGA for star tracking optimization in space applications"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Vasileios","family":"Panousopoulos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Emmanouil","family":"Papaloukas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Vasileios","family":"Leon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Dimitrios","family":"Soudris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Emmanuel","family":"Koumandakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"George","family":"Lentaris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"1391_CR1","unstructured":"ARM Developer: AMBA AXI-Stream Protocol Specification (2023)"},{"issue":"1","key":"1391_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/s11554-012-0285-2","volume":"9","author":"M Azizabadi","year":"2014","unstructured":"Azizabadi, M., Behrad, A., Ghaznavi-Ghoushchi, M.B.: VLSI implementation of star detection and centroid calculation algorithms for star tracking applications. J. Real-Time Image Proc 9(1), 127\u2013140 (2014)","journal-title":"J. Real-Time Image Proc"},{"issue":"2012","key":"1391_CR3","first-page":"441","volume":"144","author":"P Bodin","year":"2012","unstructured":"Bodin, P., Noteborn, R., Larsson, R., Karlsson, T., D\u2019Amico, S., Ardaens, J.S., Delpech, M., Berges, J.C.: The prisma formation flying demonstrator: Overview and conclusions from the nominal mission. Adv. Astronaut. Sci. 144(2012), 441\u2013460 (2012)","journal-title":"Adv. Astronaut. Sci."},{"key":"1391_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1007\/s12567-020-00321-9","volume":"12","author":"FC Bruhn","year":"2020","unstructured":"Bruhn, F.C., Tsog, N., Kunkel, F., Flordal, O., Troxel, I.: Enabling Radiation Tolerant Heterogeneous GPU-based Onboard Data Processing in Space. CEAS Space J. 12, 551\u2013564 (2020)","journal-title":"CEAS Space J."},{"key":"1391_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carmeli, G., Ben-Moshe, B.: Ai-based real-time star tracker. MDPI Electronics 12(9) (2023)","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12092084"},{"key":"1391_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1007\/s40295-015-0034-4","volume":"61","author":"T Delabie","year":"2013","unstructured":"Delabie, T., Schutter, J.D., Vandenbussche, B.K.: An Accurate and Efficient Gaussian Fit Centroiding Algorithm for Star Trackers. J. Astronaut. Sci. 61, 60\u201384 (2013)","journal-title":"J. Astronaut. Sci."},{"key":"1391_CR7","first-page":"524","volume":"3221","author":"AR Eisenman","year":"1997","unstructured":"Eisenman, A.R., Liebe, C.C., Joergensen, J.L.: New Generation of Autonomous Star Trackers. Sensors, Syst, Next-Gen Satellites 3221, 524\u2013535 (1997)","journal-title":"Sensors, Syst, Next-Gen Satellites"},{"key":"1391_CR8","unstructured":"Erlank, A.O.: Development of CubeStar: A CubeSat-Compatible Star Tracker. Stellenbosch Univ (2013)"},{"key":"1391_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, Y., Xiao, H., Cao, W., Zuo, L., Chen, S.: Fpga implementation of real-time star centroid extraction algorithm. In: 2019 IEEE 2nd International Conference on Information Communication and Signal Processing (ICICSP), pp 395\u2013399 (2019)","DOI":"10.1109\/ICICSP48821.2019.8958483"},{"key":"1391_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2018.01.042","volume":"153","author":"G Gaias","year":"2018","unstructured":"Gaias, G., Ardaens, J.S.: In-Orbit Experience and Lessons Learned from the AVANTI Experiment. Elsevier Acta Astronautica 153, 383\u2013393 (2018)","journal-title":"Elsevier Acta Astronautica"},{"key":"1391_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijleo.2019.162932","volume":"194","author":"Y He","year":"2019","unstructured":"He, Y., Wang, H., Feng, L., You, S., Lu, J., Jiang, W.: Centroid extraction algorithm based on grey-gradient for autonomous star sensor. Optik 194, 162932 (2019)","journal-title":"Optik"},{"key":"1391_CR12","first-page":"1379","volume":"403\u2013408","author":"H Jiang","year":"2011","unstructured":"Jiang, H., Fan, X.: Centroid locating for star image object by fpga. Adv Mat Res 403\u2013408, 1379\u20131383 (2011)","journal-title":"Adv Mat Res"},{"issue":"4","key":"1391_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1007\/s11554-016-0633-8","volume":"16","author":"J Jiang","year":"2019","unstructured":"Jiang, J., Chen, K.: Fpga-based accurate star segmentation with moon interference. J. Real-Time Image Proc. 16(4), 1289\u20131299 (2019)","journal-title":"J. Real-Time Image Proc."},{"key":"1391_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, X., Hirakawa, K.: Analysis and processing of pixel binning for color image sensor. EURASIP Journal on Advances in Signal Processing 2012(125) (2012)","DOI":"10.1186\/1687-6180-2012-125"},{"issue":"4","key":"1391_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.2514\/1.I010555","volume":"15","author":"G Lentaris","year":"2018","unstructured":"Lentaris, G., Maragos, K., Stratakos, I., Papadopoulos, L., Papanikolaou, O., Soudris, D., Lourakis, M., Zabulis, X., Gonzalez-Arjona, D., Furano, G.: High-performance embedded computing in space: Evaluation of platforms for vision-based navigation. J. Aerospace Inform Syst 15(4), 178\u2013192 (2018)","journal-title":"J. Aerospace Inform Syst"},{"key":"1391_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leon, V., Bezaitis, C., Lentaris, G., Soudris, D., Reisis, D., Papatheofanous, E.A., Kyriakos, A., Dunne, A., Samuelsson, A., Steenari, D.: FPGA & VPU Co-Processing in Space Applications: Development and Testing with DSP\/AI Benchmarks. In: IEEE Int\u2019l Conference on Electronics, Circuits, and Systems (ICECS), pp 1\u20135 (2021a)","DOI":"10.1109\/ICECS53924.2021.9665462"},{"issue":"3","key":"1391_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3440885","volume":"20","author":"V Leon","year":"2021","unstructured":"Leon, V., Lentaris, G., Petrongonas, E., Soudris, D., Furano, G., Tavoularis, A., Moloney, D.: Improving Performance-Power-Programmability in Space Avionics with Edge Devices: VBN on Myriad2 SoC. ACM Trans Embedded Comput Syst 20(3), 1\u201323 (2021)","journal-title":"ACM Trans Embedded Comput Syst"},{"key":"1391_CR18","unstructured":"Leon, V., Stamoulias, I., Lentaris, G., Soudris, D., Domingo, R., Verdugo, M., Gonzalez-Arjona, D., Codinachs, D.M., Conway, I.: Systematic Evaluation of the European NG-LARGE FPGA & EDA Tools for On-Board Processing. In: European Workshop on On-Board Data Processing (OBDP), pp 1\u20138 (2021c)"},{"key":"1391_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131877","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3114502","volume":"9","author":"V Leon","year":"2021","unstructured":"Leon, V., Stamoulias, I., Lentaris, G., Soudris, D., Gonzalez-Arjona, D., Domingo, R., Codinachs, D.M., Conway, I.: Development and Testing on the European Space-Grade BRAVE FPGAs: Evaluation of NG-Large Using High-Performance DSP Benchmarks. IEEE Access 9, 131877\u2013131892 (2021)","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"1391_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leon, V., Lentaris, G., Soudris, D., Vellas, S., Bernou, M.: Towards Employing FPGA and ASIP Acceleration to Enable Onboard AI\/ML in Space Applications. In: IFIP\/IEEE International Conference on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI-SoC), pp 1\u20134 (2022)","DOI":"10.1109\/VLSI-SoC54400.2022.9939566"},{"issue":"2","key":"1391_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2002.1008988","volume":"38","author":"C Liebe","year":"2002","unstructured":"Liebe, C.: Accuracy Performance of Star Trackers - A Tutorial. IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst. 38(2), 587\u2013599 (2002)","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"1391_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maragos, K., Leon, V., Lentaris, G., Soudris, D., Gonzalez-Arjona, D., Domingo, R., Pastor., A, Codinachs, D.M., Conway, I.: Evaluation Methodology and Reconfiguration Tests on the New European NG-MEDIUM FPGA. In: NASA\/ESA Conference on Adaptive Hardware and Systems (AHS), pp 127\u2013134 (2018)","DOI":"10.1109\/AHS.2018.8541492"},{"key":"1391_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marcelino, G., Schulz, V., Seman, L., Bezerra, E.: Centroid determination hardware algorithm for star trackers. International Journal of Sensor Networks 32 (2020)","DOI":"10.1504\/IJSNET.2020.104458"},{"issue":"3","key":"1391_CR24","first-page":"171","volume":"51","author":"D Mortari","year":"2004","unstructured":"Mortari, D., Samaan, M.A., Bruccoleri, C., Junkins, J.L.: The Pyramid Star Identification Technique. Annual Navig. 51(3), 171\u2013183 (2004)","journal-title":"Annual Navig."},{"key":"1391_CR25","unstructured":"NASA-Solar System Exploration ((accessed March 2023)) Cassini Raw Images. URL https:\/\/solarsystem.nasa.gov\/raw-images\/cassini-raw-images\/?order=earth_date+desc &per_page=50 &page=0"},{"key":"1391_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59891","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2983308","volume":"8","author":"A P\u00e9rez","year":"2020","unstructured":"P\u00e9rez, A., Rodr\u00edguez, A., Otero, A., Gonz\u00e1lez-Arjona, D., Jim\u00e9nez-Peralo, A., Verdugo, M.A., De La Torre, E.: Run-Time Reconfigurable MPSoC-Based On-Board Processor for Vision-Based Space Navigation. IEEE Access 8, 59891\u201359905 (2020)","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"1391_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spratling, B., Mortari, D.: A survey on star identification algorithms. Algorithms 2 (2009)","DOI":"10.3390\/a2010093"},{"key":"1391_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1227","DOI":"10.1086\/115066","volume":"97","author":"RC Stone","year":"1989","unstructured":"Stone, R.C.: A comparison of digital centering algorithms. Astron. J. 97, 1227 (1989)","journal-title":"Astron. J."},{"key":"1391_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2836","DOI":"10.3390\/s18092836","volume":"18","author":"X Wan","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wan, X., Wang, G., Wei, X., Li, J., Zhang, G.: Star Centroiding Based on Fast Gaussian Fitting for Star Sensors. MDPI Sensors 18, 2836 (2018)","journal-title":"MDPI Sensors"},{"key":"1391_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, H., Xu, E., Li, Z., Jingjin, L., Qin, T.: Gaussian analytic centroiding method of star image of star tracker. Advances in Space Research 56 (2015a)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2015.08.027"},{"issue":"9","key":"1391_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4857","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2015.2428434","volume":"15","author":"X Wang","year":"2015","unstructured":"Wang, X., Wei, X., Fan, Q., Li, J., Wang, G.: HW implementation of fast & robust star centroid extraction with low resource cost. IEEE Sensors J 15(9), 4857\u20134865 (2015)","journal-title":"IEEE Sensors J"},{"key":"1391_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2014.03.002","volume":"99","author":"X Wei","year":"2014","unstructured":"Wei, X., Xu, J., Li, J., Yan, J., Zhang, G.: S-curve centroiding error correction for star sensor. Acta Astronaut. 99, 231\u2013241 (2014)","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"1391_CR33","unstructured":"von Wielligh, C.L.: Fast star tracker hardware implementation and algorithm optimisations on a system-on-a-chip device. Master\u2019s thesis, Stellenbosch Univ (2019)"},{"issue":"4","key":"1391_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.2514\/1.I010572","volume":"15","author":"C Wilson","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wilson, C., George, A.: CSP Hybrid Space Computing. J. Aerospace Informa Syst. 15(4), 215\u2013227 (2018)","journal-title":"J. Aerospace Informa Syst."},{"issue":"3","key":"1391_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1007\/s11554-014-0408-z","volume":"12","author":"F Zhou","year":"2016","unstructured":"Zhou, F., Zhao, J., Ye, T., Chen, L.: Fast star centroid extraction algorithm with sub-pixel accuracy based on fpga. J. Real-Time Image Proc. 12(3), 613\u2013622 (2016)","journal-title":"J. Real-Time Image Proc."},{"key":"1391_CR36","first-page":"443","volume":"8558","author":"X Zhu","year":"2012","unstructured":"Zhu, X., Wu, F., Xu, Q.: A Fast Star Image Extraction Algorithm for Autonomous Star Sensors. Optoelectronic Imag. Multimedia Tech II 8558, 443\u2013451 (2012)","journal-title":"Optoelectronic Imag. Multimedia Tech II"}],"container-title":["Journal of Real-Time Image Processing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11554-023-01391-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11554-023-01391-8\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11554-023-01391-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,3]],"date-time":"2024-02-03T11:11:12Z","timestamp":1706958672000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s11554-023-01391-8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,4]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]}},"alternative-id":["1391"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11554-023-01391-8","relation":{},"ISSN":["1861-8200","1861-8219"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1861-8200","type":"print"},{"value":"1861-8219","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,4]]},"assertion":[{"value":"8 August 2023","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"26 November 2023","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"4 January 2024","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}],"article-number":"16"}}