{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T01:50:13Z","timestamp":1776131413299,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]],"date-time":"2023-10-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1698278400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]],"date-time":"2023-10-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1698278400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005274","name":"North-West University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005274","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Eng Ethics"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>The convergence of human and artificial intelligence is currently receiving considerable scholarly attention. Much debate about the resulting <jats:italic>Hybrid Minds<\/jats:italic> focuses on the integration of artificial intelligence into the human brain through intelligent brain-computer interfaces as they enter clinical use. In this contribution we discuss a complementary development: the integration of a functional in vitro network of human neurons into an <jats:italic>in silico<\/jats:italic> computing environment.<\/jats:p><jats:p>To do so, we draw on a recent experiment reporting the creation of silico-biological intelligence as a case study (Kagan et al., 2022b). In this experiment, multielectrode arrays were plated with stem cell-derived human neurons, creating a system which the authors call <jats:italic>DishBrain<\/jats:italic>. By embedding the system into a virtual game-world, neural clusters were able to receive electrical input signals from the game-world and to respond appropriately with output signals from pre-assigned motor regions. Using this design, the authors demonstrate how the <jats:italic>DishBrain<\/jats:italic> self-organises and successfully learns to play the computer game \u2018Pong\u2019, exhibiting \u2018sentient\u2019 and intelligent behaviour in its virtual environment.<\/jats:p><jats:p>The creation of such hybrid, silico-biological intelligence raises numerous ethical challenges. Following the neuroscientific framework embraced by the authors themselves, we discuss the arising ethical challenges in the context of Karl Friston\u2019s Free Energy Principle, focusing on the risk of creating synthetic phenomenology. Following the <jats:italic>DishBrain\u2019s<\/jats:italic> creator\u2019s neuroscientific assumptions, we highlight how DishBrain\u2019s design may risk bringing about artificial suffering and argue for a congruently cautious approach to such synthetic biological intelligence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-023-00457-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]],"date-time":"2023-10-26T11:02:43Z","timestamp":1698318163000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Playing Brains: The Ethical Challenges Posed by Silicon Sentience and Hybrid Intelligence in DishBrain"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"29","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7325-9940","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephen R.","family":"Milford","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8180-6927","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Shaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7428-2619","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Georg","family":"Starke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]]},"reference":[{"issue":"01","key":"457_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1142\/S2705078520300030","volume":"07","author":"A Agarwal","year":"2020","unstructured":"Agarwal, A., & Edelman, S. (2020). Functionally effective conscious AI without suffering. Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Consciousness, 7(1), 39\u201350. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1142\/S2705078520300030.","journal-title":"Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Consciousness"},{"key":"457_CR2","unstructured":"Australian Code for the Care and Use of Animals for Scientific Purposes. (2013). National Health and Medical Research Council."},{"issue":"5","key":"457_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2023.02.009","volume":"111","author":"F Balci","year":"2023","unstructured":"Balci, F., Ben Hamed, S., Boraud, T., Bouret, S., Brochier, T., Brun, C., Cohen, J. Y., Coutureau, E., Deffains, M., Doy\u00e8re, V., Gregoriou, G. G., Heimel, J. A., Kilavik, B. E., Lee, D., Leuthardt, E. C., Mainen, Z. F., Mathis, M., Monosov, I. E., Naud\u00e9, J., & Zimmermann, J. (2023). A response to claims of emergent intelligence and sentience in a dish. Neuron, 111(5), 604\u2013605. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuron.2023.02.009.","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"457_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bassil, K. (2023). The end of \u2019mini-brains\u2019! Responsible communication of cerebral organoid research. Molecular Psychology: Brain Behavior and Society, 2(13), https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12688\/molpsychol.17534.1.","DOI":"10.12688\/molpsychol.17534.1"},{"issue":"50","key":"457_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10583","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2091-18.2018","volume":"38","author":"DW Bianchi","year":"2018","unstructured":"Bianchi, D. W., Cooper, J. A., Gordon, J. A., Heemskerk, J., Hodes, R., Koob, G. F., Koroshetz, W. J., Shurtleff, D., Sieving, P. A., Volkow, N. D., Churchill, J. D., & Ramos, K. M. (2018). Neuroethics for the National Institutes of Health BRAIN Initiative. The Journal of Neuroscience, 38(50), 10583\u201310585. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2091-18.2018.","journal-title":"The Journal of Neuroscience"},{"issue":"2","key":"457_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1080\/21507740.2023.2188276","volume":"14","author":"BP Blackshaw","year":"2023","unstructured":"Blackshaw, B. P. (2023). Artificial consciousness is morally irrelevant. AJOB Neuroscience, 14(2), 72\u201374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/21507740.2023.2188276.","journal-title":"AJOB Neuroscience"},{"issue":"1","key":"457_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2008.10.003","volume":"13","author":"O Blanke","year":"2009","unstructured":"Blanke, O., & Metzinger, T. (2009). Full-body illusions and minimal phenomenal selfhood. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(1), 7\u201313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tics.2008.10.003.","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"issue":"2","key":"457_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X00038188","volume":"18","author":"N Block","year":"1995","unstructured":"Block, N. (1995). On a confusion about a function of consciousness. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 18(2), 227\u2013247.","journal-title":"Behavioral and Brain Sciences"},{"key":"457_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Buchanan, M. (2018). IOrganoids of intelligence. Nature Physics, 14(7), https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41567-018-0200-2. Article 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41567-018-0200-2"},{"key":"457_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neunet.2020.03.002","volume":"126","author":"A Calim","year":"2020","unstructured":"Calim, A., Torres, J. J., Ozer, M., & Uzuntarla, M. (2020). Chimera states in hybrid coupled neuron populations. Neural Networks, 126, 108\u2013117. ScienceDirect.","journal-title":"Neural Networks"},{"key":"457_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Casali, A. G., Gosseries, O., Rosanova, M., Boly, M., Sarasso, S., Casali, K. R., ... & Massimini, M. (2013). A theoretically based index of consciousness independent of sensory processing and behavior. Science Translational Medicine, 5(198), 198ra105-198ra105. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/scitranslmed.3006294.","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3006294"},{"key":"457_CR71","unstructured":"Chalmers, D. J. (1995). Facing up to the problem of consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 2(3), 200-219."},{"issue":"18","key":"457_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202101462","volume":"8","author":"X Chen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Chen, X., Sun, G., Tian, E., Zhang, M., Davtyan, H., Beach, T. G., Reiman, E. M., Blurton-Jones, M., Holtzman, D. M., & Shi, Y. (2021). Modeling sporadic Alzheimer\u2019s disease in human brain organoids under serum exposure. Advanced Science, 8(18), 1\u201316. Applied Science & Technology Source.","journal-title":"Advanced Science"},{"key":"457_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clark, A. (2016). Surfing uncertainty: Prediction, action, and the embodied mind. Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780190217013.001.0001"},{"key":"457_CR14","unstructured":"Cortical Labs (2021). What does it mean to grow a mind? Medium. https:\/\/corticallabs.medium.com\/what-does-it-mean-to-grow-a-mind-5819fcdd8a99."},{"key":"457_CR15","unstructured":"Curtis, B., & Savulescu, J. (2022). Is Google\u2019s LaMDA conscious? A philosopher\u2019s view. The Conversation."},{"key":"457_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/febs.15885","author":"M Dannemann","year":"2021","unstructured":"Dannemann, M., & Gallego Romero, I. (2021). Harnessing pluripotent stem cells as models to decipher human evolution. The FEBS Journal MEDLINE. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/febs.15885.","journal-title":"The FEBS Journal MEDLINE"},{"issue":"5","key":"457_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2008.09.002","volume":"3","author":"M Eiraku","year":"2008","unstructured":"Eiraku, M., Watanabe, K., Matsuo-Takasaki, M., Kawada, M., Yonemura, S., Matsumura, M., Wataya, T., Nishiyama, A., Muguruma, K., & Sasai, Y. (2008). Self-organized formation of polarized cortical tissues from ESCs and its active manipulation by extrinsic signals. Cell Stem Cell, 3(5), 519\u2013532. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.stem.2008.09.002.","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell"},{"issue":"7702","key":"457_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-018-04813-x","volume":"556","author":"NA Farahany","year":"2018","unstructured":"Farahany, N. A., Greely, H. T., Hyman, S., Koch, C., Grady, C., Pa\u0219ca, S. P., Sestan, N., Arlotta, P., Bernat, J. L., Ting, J., Lunshof, J. E., Iyer, E. P. R., Hyun, I., Capestany, B. H., Church, G. M., Huang, H., & Song, H. (2018). The ethics of experimenting with human brain tissue. Nature, 556(7702), 429\u2013432. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/d41586-018-04813-x.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"2","key":"457_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2787","volume":"11","author":"K Friston","year":"2010","unstructured":"Friston, K. (2010). The free-energy principle: A unified brain theory? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11(2), 127\u2013138.","journal-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience"},{"issue":"1","key":"457_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1162\/NECO_a_00912","volume":"29","author":"K Friston","year":"2017","unstructured":"Friston, K., FitzGerald, T., Rigoli, F., Schwartenbeck, P., & Pezzulo, G. (2017). Active inference: A process theory. Neural Computation, 29(1), 1\u201349.","journal-title":"Neural Computation"},{"key":"457_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Friston, K. J., Wiese, W., & Hobson, J. A. (2020). Sentience and the origins of consciousness: From Cartesian duality to Markovian monism. Entropy, 22, 516. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/e22050516.","DOI":"10.3390\/e22050516"},{"key":"457_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gamma, A., & Metzinger, T. (2021). The minimal phenomenal experience questionnaire (MPE-92\u00a0M): Towards a phenomenological profile of \u201cpure awareness\u201d experiences in meditators. Plos One, 16, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0253694.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0253694"},{"key":"457_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gere, C. (2017). Pain, pleasure, and the greater good: From the panopticon to the Skinner box and beyond. The University of Chicago Press.","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226501994.001.0001"},{"issue":"1","key":"457_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-021-01179-z","volume":"37","author":"M Gibert","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gibert, M., & Martin, D. (2022). In search of the moral status of AI: Why sentience is a strong argument. AI & Society, 37(1), 319\u2013330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-021-01179-z.","journal-title":"AI & SOCIETY"},{"issue":"1","key":"457_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-017-0001-5","volume":"25","author":"F Gilbert","year":"2019","unstructured":"Gilbert, F., Cook, M., O\u2019Brien, T., & Illes, J. (2019). Embodiment and estrangement: Results from a first-in-human intelligent BCI trial. Science and Engineering Ethics, 25(1), 83\u201396. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11948-017-0001-5.","journal-title":"Science and Engineering Ethics"},{"key":"457_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gosseries, O., Di, H., Laureys, S., & Boly, M. (2014). Measuring consciousness in severely damaged brains. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 37.","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-062012-170339"},{"issue":"50","key":"457_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10586","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2077-18.2018","volume":"38","author":"HT Greely","year":"2018","unstructured":"Greely, H. T., Grady, C., Ramos, K. M., Chiong, W., Eberwine, J., Farahany, N. A., Johnson, L. S. M., Hyman, B. T., Hyman, S. E., Rommelfanger, K. S., & Serrano, E. E. (2018). Neuroethics guiding principles for the NIH BRAIN initiative. The Journal of Neuroscience, 38(50), 10586\u201310588. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2077-18.2018.","journal-title":"The Journal of Neuroscience"},{"issue":"2","key":"457_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1080\/21507740.2022.2148773","volume":"14","author":"E Hildt","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hildt, E. (2023). The prospects of artificial consciousness: Ethical dimensions and concerns. AJOB Neuroscience, 14(2), 58\u201371. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/21507740.2022.2148773.","journal-title":"AJOB Neuroscience"},{"key":"457_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ienca, M. (2023). Don\u2019t pause giant AI for the wrong reasons. Nature Machine Intelligence, 5(5), https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s42256-023-00649-x.","DOI":"10.1038\/s42256-023-00649-x"},{"issue":"7","key":"457_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2017.11.011","volume":"83","author":"M Ilieva","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ilieva, M., Svenningsen, F., Thorsen, \u00c5., M., & Michel, T. M. (2018). Psychiatry in a dish: Stem cells and brain organoids modeling autism spectrum disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 83(7), 558\u2013568. ScienceDirect.","journal-title":"Biological Psychiatry"},{"key":"457_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kagan, B. J., Kitchen, A. C., Tran, N. T., Parker, B. J., Bhat, A., Rollo, B., Razi, A., & Friston, K. J. (2021). In vitro neurons learn and exhibit sentience when embodied in a simulated game-world (p.\u00a02021.12.02.471005). bioRxiv. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2021.12.02.471005.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.12.02.471005"},{"issue":"2","key":"457_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1080\/21507740.2022.2048731","volume":"13","author":"BJ Kagan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kagan, B. J., Duc, D., Stevens, I., & Gilbert, F. (2022a). Neurons embodied in a virtual world: Evidence for organoid ethics? AJOB Neuroscience, 13(2), 114\u2013117.","journal-title":"AJOB Neuroscience"},{"issue":"23","key":"457_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3952","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2022.09.001","volume":"110","author":"BJ Kagan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kagan, B. J., Kitchen, A. C., Tran, N. T., Habibollahi, F., Khajehnejad, M., Parker, B. J., Bhat, A., Rollo, B., Razi, A., & Friston, K. J. (2022b). In vitro neurons learn and exhibit sentience when embodied in a simulated game-world. Neuron, 110(23), 3952\u20133969e8. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuron.2022.09.001.","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"issue":"5","key":"457_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2023.02.008","volume":"111","author":"BJ Kagan","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kagan, B. J., Razi, A., Bhat, A., Kitchen, A. C., Tran, N. T., Habibollahi, F., Khajehnejad, M., Parker, B. J., Rollo, B., & Friston, K. J. (2023). Scientific communication and the semantics of sentience. Neuron, 111(5), 606\u2013607. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuron.2023.02.008.","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"457_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khaleghi, L., Panahi, S., Chowdhury, S. N., Bogomolov, S., Ghosh, D., & Jafari, S. (2019). Chimera states in a ring of map-based neurons. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications, 536. ScienceDirect. https:\/\/nwulib.nwu.ac.za\/login?url=https:\/\/search.ebscohost.com\/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edselp&AN=S0378437119314840&site=eds-live.&db=edselp&AN=S0378437119314840&site=eds-live.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physa.2019.122596"},{"issue":"3","key":"457_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1080\/2326263X.2016.1207497","volume":"3","author":"E Klein","year":"2016","unstructured":"Klein, E., Goering, S., Gagne, J., Shea, C. V., Franklin, R., Zorowitz, S., Dougherty, D. D., & Widge, A. S. (2016). Brain-computer interface-based control of closed-loop brain stimulation: Attitudes and ethical considerations. Brain-Computer Interfaces, 3(3), 140\u2013148. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/2326263X.2016.1207497.","journal-title":"Brain-Computer Interfaces"},{"key":"457_CR37","unstructured":"Koch, C. (2004). The quest for consciousness a neurobiological approach."},{"issue":"3","key":"457_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1093\/analys\/anz045","volume":"79","author":"U Kriegel","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kriegel, U. (2019). The value of consciousness. Analysis, 79(3), 503\u2013520.","journal-title":"Analysis"},{"key":"457_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-023-00260-1","author":"A Ladak","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ladak, A. (2023). What would qualify an artificial intelligence for moral standing? AI and Ethics. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s43681-023-00260-1.","journal-title":"AI and Ethics"},{"key":"457_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lancaster, M. A., & Knoblich, J. A. (2014). Generation of cerebral organoids from human pluripotent stem cells. Nature Protocols, 9(10), Article 10. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nprot.2014.158.","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2014.158"},{"key":"457_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2020.147146","volume":"1750","author":"A Lavazza","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lavazza, A. (2021). Potential ethical problems with human cerebral organoids: Consciousness and moral status of future brains in a dish. Brain Research, 1750, 147146. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.brainres.2020.147146.","journal-title":"Brain Research"},{"key":"457_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lavazza, A., & Massimini, M. (2018). Cerebral organoids: Ethical issues and consciousness assessment. Journal of Medical Ethics, 44(9), 606\u2013610. JSTOR Journals.","DOI":"10.1136\/medethics-2017-104555"},{"issue":"1","key":"457_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"lsaa005","DOI":"10.1093\/jlb\/lsaa005","volume":"7","author":"A Lavazza","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lavazza, A., & Pizzetti, F. G. (2020). Human cerebral organoids as a new legal and ethical challenge. Journal of Law and the Biosciences, 7(1), lsaa005. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/jlb\/lsaa005. MEDLINE.","journal-title":"Journal of Law and the Biosciences"},{"key":"457_CR44","unstructured":"LeDoux, J. E. (2015). Anxious: Using the brain to understand and treat fear and anxiety. Viking."},{"issue":"5","key":"457_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.4127","volume":"36","author":"AA Mansour","year":"2018","unstructured":"Mansour, A. A., Goncalves, J. T., Bloyd, C. W., Li, H., Fernandes, S., Quang, D., Johnston, S., Parylak, S. L., Jin, X., & Gage, F. H. (2018). An in vivo model of functional and vascularized human brain organoids. Nature Biotechnology, 36(5), 432. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nbt.4127. Business Insights: Essentials.","journal-title":"Nature Biotechnology"},{"key":"457_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Metzinger, T. (2020). Minimal phenomenal experience: Meditation, tonic alertness, and the phenomenology of \u201cpure\u201d consciousness. Philosophy and the Mind Sciences, 1(I), Article I. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.33735\/phimisci.2020.I.46.","DOI":"10.33735\/phimisci.2020.I.46"},{"issue":"1","key":"457_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1142\/S270507852150003X","volume":"8","author":"T Metzinger","year":"2021","unstructured":"Metzinger, T. (2021). Artificial suffering: An argument for a global moratorium on synthetic phenomenology. Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Consciousness, 8(1), 43\u201366.","journal-title":"Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Consciousness"},{"key":"457_CR48","unstructured":"Multiple (2023). (n.d.). Pause giant AI experiments: An open letter. Future of Life Institute. Retrieved July 4, from https:\/\/futureoflife.org\/open-letter\/pause-giant-ai-experiments\/."},{"key":"457_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Mu\u00f1oz, K. A., Kostick, K., Sanchez, C., Kalwani, L., Torgerson, L., Hsu, R., Sierra-Mercado, D., Robinson, J. O., Outram, S., Koenig, B. A., Pereira, S., McGuire, A., Zuk, P., & L\u00e1zaro-Mu\u00f1oz, G. (2020). Researcher perspectives on ethical considerations in adaptive deep brain stimulation trials. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 14. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnhum.2020.578695.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2020.578695"},{"issue":"4","key":"457_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.2307\/2183914","volume":"83","author":"T Nagel","year":"1974","unstructured":"Nagel, T. (1974). What is it like to be a bat? The Philosophical Review, 83(4), 435\u2013450.","journal-title":"The Philosophical Review"},{"issue":"7","key":"457_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.3415","volume":"12","author":"AM Pa\u015fca","year":"2015","unstructured":"Pa\u015fca, A. M., Sloan, S. A., Clarke, L. E., Tian, Y., Makinson, C. D., Huber, N., Kim, C. H., Park, J. Y., O\u2019Rourke, N. A., Nguyen, K. D., Smith, S. J., Huguenard, J. R., Geschwind, D. H., Barres, B. A., & Pa\u015fca, S. P. (2015). Functional cortical neurons and astrocytes from human pluripotent stem cells in 3D culture. Nature Methods, 12(7), 671\u2013678. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nmeth.3415.","journal-title":"Nature Methods"},{"issue":"7689","key":"457_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1038\/nature25032","volume":"553","author":"SP Pa\u0219ca","year":"2018","unstructured":"Pa\u0219ca, S. P. (2018). The rise of three-dimensional human brain cultures. Nature, 553(7689), 437\u2013445. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nature25032.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"5","key":"457_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.04.032","volume":"165","author":"X Qian","year":"2016","unstructured":"Qian, X., Nguyen, H. N., Song, M. M., Hadiono, C., Ogden, S. C., Hammack, C., Yao, B., Hamersky, G. R., Jacob, F., Zhong, C., Yoon, K. J., Jeang, W., Lin, L., Li, Y., Thakor, J., Berg, D. A., Zhang, C., Kang, E., Chickering, M., & Ming, G. L. (2016). Brain-region-specific Organoids using mini-bioreactors for modeling ZIKV exposure. Cell, 165(5), 1238\u20131254. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cell.2016.04.032.","journal-title":"Cell"},{"issue":"1","key":"457_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1080\/23299460.2017.1319035","volume":"5","author":"KM Ramos","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ramos, K. M., Rommelfanger, K. S., Greely, H. T., & Koroshetz, W. J. (2018). Neuroethics and the NIH BRAIN initiative. Journal of Responsible Innovation, 5(1), 122\u2013130. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/23299460.2017.1319035.","journal-title":"Journal of Responsible Innovation"},{"key":"457_CR57","unstructured":"Rommelfanger, K. (2019). We need neuroethicists present before the holy shit moments in neuroscience. The Neuroethics Blog. http:\/\/www.theneuroethicsblog.com\/2019\/08\/we-need-neuroethicists-present-before.html."},{"issue":"5","key":"457_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2023.02.016","volume":"111","author":"KS Rommelfanger","year":"2023","unstructured":"Rommelfanger, K. S., Ramos, K. M., & Salles, A. (2023). Conceptual conundrums for neuroscience. Neuron, 111(5), 608\u2013609. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuron.2023.02.016.","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"457_CR59","unstructured":"Rosenthal, D. M. (1997). A theory of consciousness."},{"key":"457_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Salles, A., Bjaalie, J. G., Evers, K., Farisco, M., Fothergill, B. T., Guerrero, M., ... & Amunts, K. (2019). The human brain project: Responsible brain research for the benefit of society. Neuron, 101(3), 380\u2013384. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuron.2019.01.005.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2019.01.005"},{"issue":"2","key":"457_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1080\/21507740.2021.1896603","volume":"13","author":"T Sawai","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sawai, T., Hayashi, Y., Niikawa, T., Shepherd, J., Thomas, E., Lee, T. L., Erler, A., Watanabe, M., & Sakaguchi, H. (2022). Mapping the ethical issues of brain organoid research and application. AJOB Neuroscience, 13(2), 81\u201394.","journal-title":"AJOB Neuroscience"},{"key":"457_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Schneider, E., Samsa, L., & Dubljevi\u0107, V. (2023). Political and ethical landscape of brain organoid research [version 1; peer review: 1 approved]. Molecular Psychology: Brain Behavior and Society, 2(3), https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12688\/molpsychol.17521.1.","DOI":"10.12688\/molpsychol.17521.1"},{"key":"457_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seth, A. K., & Bayne, T. (2022). Theories of consciousness. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 1\u201314.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41583-022-00587-4"},{"issue":"2","key":"457_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1111\/ejop.12221","volume":"25","author":"J Shepherd","year":"2017","unstructured":"Shepherd, J. (2017). The moral insignificance of self-consciousness. European Journal of Philosophy, 25(2), 398\u2013415. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ejop.12221.","journal-title":"European Journal of Philosophy"},{"issue":"9","key":"457_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1136\/medethics-2018-104778","volume":"44","author":"J Shepherd","year":"2018","unstructured":"Shepherd, J. (2018). Ethical (and epistemological) issues regarding consciousness in cerebral organoids. Journal of Medical Ethics, 44(9), 611\u2013612. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/medethics-2018-104778.","journal-title":"Journal of Medical Ethics"},{"key":"457_CR65","unstructured":"Social (2017). Ethical, Reflective. Human Brain Project. https:\/\/www.humanbrainproject.eu\/en\/social-ethical-reflective\/about\/ethics-coordination\/."},{"issue":"1","key":"457_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.5771\/2747-5182-2021-1-30","volume":"1","author":"S Soekadar","year":"2021","unstructured":"Soekadar, S., Chandler, J., Ienca, M., & Bublitz, C. (2021). On the verge of the hybrid mind. Morals & Machines, 1(1), 30\u201343.","journal-title":"Morals & Machines"},{"key":"457_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solms, M. (2019). The hard problem of consciousness and the free energy principle. Frontiers in Psychology, 2714.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.02714"},{"issue":"5\u20136","key":"457_CR68","first-page":"202","volume":"25","author":"M Solms","year":"2018","unstructured":"Solms, M., & Friston, K. (2018). How and why consciousness arises: Some considerations from physics and physiology. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 25(5\u20136), 202\u2013238.","journal-title":"Journal of Consciousness Studies"},{"key":"457_CR52","unstructured":"The National Health and Medical Research Council, the Australian Research Council and Universities Australia (2007). National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research 2007. https:\/\/www.nhmrc.gov.au\/about-us\/publications\/national-statement-ethical-conduct-human-research-2007-updated-2018."},{"issue":"6530","key":"457_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"MEDLINE","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aax2537","volume":"371","author":"CA Trujillo","year":"2021","unstructured":"Trujillo, C. A., Rice, E. S., Schaefer, N. K., Chaim, I. A., Wheeler, E. C., Madrigal, A. A., Buchanan, J., Preissl, S., Wang, A., Negraes, P. D., Szeto, R. A., Herai, R. H., Huseynov, A., Ferraz, M. S. A., Borges, F. S., Kihara, A. H., Byrne, A., Marin, M., Vollmers, C., & Muotri, A. R. (2021). Reintroduction of the archaic variant of NOVA1 in cortical organoids alters neurodevelopment. Science, 371(6530), MEDLINE. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.aax2537.","journal-title":"Science"}],"container-title":["Science and Engineering Ethics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11948-023-00457-x.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11948-023-00457-x\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11948-023-00457-x.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,22]],"date-time":"2023-12-22T12:31:16Z","timestamp":1703248276000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s11948-023-00457-x"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["457"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11948-023-00457-x","relation":{},"ISSN":["1353-3452","1471-5546"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1353-3452","type":"print"},{"value":"1471-5546","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]]},"assertion":[{"value":"7 October 2022","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"28 September 2023","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"26 October 2023","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"This manuscript represents original work not published elsewhere in any form or language.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Statements and Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of Interest"}}],"article-number":"38"}}