{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,2]],"date-time":"2026-08-02T10:10:12Z","timestamp":1785665412311,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,24]],"date-time":"2025-09-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758672000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,24]],"date-time":"2025-09-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758672000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Eng Ethics"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>With a plethora of different seemingly diverging expansions for use of Meaningful Human Control (MHC) in practice, this paper proposes an alignment for the operationalisation of MHC for autonomous systems by proposing operational principles for MHC and introducing a generic framework for its application. The increasing integration of autonomous systems in various domains emphasises a critical need to maintain human control to ensure responsible safety, accountability, and ethical operation of these systems. The concept of MHC offers an ideal concept for the design and evaluation of human control over autonomous systems, while considering human and technology capabilities. Through conceptual synthesis of existing literature and investigation across various domains and related concepts, principles for the operationalisation of MHC are set out to provide tangible guidelines for researchers and practitioners aiming to implement MHC in their systems. The proposed framework dissects generic components of systems and their subsystems aligned with different agents, stakeholders and processes at different levels of proximity to an autonomous technology. The framework is domain-agnostic, emphasizing the universal applicability of the MHC principles irrespective of the technological context, paving the way for safer and more responsible autonomous systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-025-00554-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,24]],"date-time":"2025-09-24T12:59:45Z","timestamp":1758718785000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Principles and Framework for the Operationalisation of Meaningful Human Control Over Autonomous Systems"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"31","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1173-0071","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simeon C.","family":"Calvert","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"554_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1109\/THMS.2018.2791570","volume":"48","author":"DA Abbink","year":"2018","unstructured":"Abbink, D. A., Carlson, T., Mulder, M., De Winter, J. C., Aminravan, F., Gibo, T. L., & Boer, E. R. (2018). A topology of shared control systems\u2014finding common ground in diversity. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems, 48, 509\u2013525.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems"},{"key":"554_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1177\/0846537120941671","volume":"72","author":"SJ Adams","year":"2021","unstructured":"Adams, S. J., Henderson, R. D., Yi, X., & Babyn, P. (2021). Artificial intelligence solutions for analysis of X-ray images. Canadian Association of Radiologists Journal, 72, 60\u201372.","journal-title":"Canadian Association of Radiologists Journal"},{"key":"554_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alfrink, K., Keller, I., Kortuem, G., & Doorn, N. (2022). Contestable AI by design: Towards a framework. Minds and Machines, 1\u201327.","DOI":"10.1145\/3544548.3580984"},{"key":"554_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almada, M. (2019). Human intervention in automated decision-making: Toward the construction of contestable systems. In Proceedings of the seventeenth international conference on artificial intelligence and law (pp. 2\u201311).","DOI":"10.1145\/3322640.3326699"},{"key":"554_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1007\/s43154-020-00024-3","volume":"1","author":"D Amoroso","year":"2020","unstructured":"Amoroso, D., & Tamburrini, G. (2020). Autonomous weapons systems and meaningful human control: Ethical and legal issues. Current Robotics Reports, 1, 187\u2013194.","journal-title":"Current Robotics Reports"},{"key":"554_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1017\/S0892679421000241","volume":"35","author":"D Amoroso","year":"2021","unstructured":"Amoroso, D., & Tamburrini, G. (2021). Toward a normative model of meaningful human control over weapons systems. Ethics & International Affairs, 35, 245\u2013272.","journal-title":"Ethics & International Affairs"},{"key":"554_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andreasen, M. M., Hansen, C. T., Cash, P., Andreasen, M. M., Hansen, C. T., & Cash, P. (2015). Concept synthesis. In Conceptual design: Interpretations, mindset and models (pp. 141\u2009\u2013\u200991).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-19839-2_7"},{"key":"554_CR59","unstructured":"Article 36 (2013). Killer robots: UK government policy on fully autonomous weapons.  Article 36. London."},{"key":"554_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boothby, W. H. (2019). Highly automated and autonomous technologies. In New technologies and the law of war and peace (pp. 137\u2009\u2013\u2009 181).","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108609388.007"},{"key":"554_CR46","unstructured":"Borrie, J. (2016). Safety, unintentional risk and accidents in the weaponization of increasingly autonomous technologies. UNIDIR Resources, 5."},{"key":"554_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bovens, M. (2007). Analysing and assessing accountability: A conceptual framework 1. European Law Journal, 13(4), 447\u2013468.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-0386.2007.00378.x"},{"key":"554_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e3","DOI":"10.1136\/medethics-2019-105860","volume":"47","author":"M Braun","year":"2021","unstructured":"Braun, M., Hummel, P., Beck, S., & Dabrock, P. (2021). Primer on an ethics of AI-based decision support systems in the clinic. Journal of Medical Ethics, 47, e3\u2013e3.","journal-title":"Journal of Medical Ethics"},{"key":"554_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1093\/ijlit\/eay017","volume":"27","author":"M Brkan","year":"2019","unstructured":"Brkan, M. (2019). Do algorithms rule the world? Algorithmic decision-making and data protection in the framework of the GDPR and beyond. International Journal of Law and Information Technology, 27, 91\u2013121.","journal-title":"International Journal of Law and Information Technology"},{"key":"554_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calvert, S. C., & Mecacci, G. (2020). A conceptual control system description of cooperative and automated driving in mixed urban traffic with meaningful human control for design and evaluation. IEEE Open Journal of Intelligent Transportation Systems.","DOI":"10.1109\/OJITS.2020.3021461"},{"key":"554_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calvert, S. C., Heikoop, D. D., Mecacci, G., & van Arem, B. (2019). A human centric framework for the analysis of automated driving systems based on meaningful human control. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science, 1\u201329.","DOI":"10.1080\/1463922X.2019.1697390"},{"key":"554_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calvert, S. C., Mecacci, G., van Arem, B., Santoni de Sio, F., Heikoop, D. D., & Hagenzieker, M. (2020). Gaps in the control of automated vehicles on roads. IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Magazine.","DOI":"10.1109\/MITS.2019.2926278"},{"key":"554_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calvert, S. C., Johnsen, S., & George, A. (2024). Designing automated vehicle and traffic systems towards meaningful human control. In Research handbook on meaningful human control of artificial intelligence systems. Edward Elgar Publishing.","DOI":"10.4337\/9781802204131.00018"},{"key":"554_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castaneda, C., Nalley, K., Mannion, C., Bhattacharyya, P., Blake, P., Pecora, A., Goy, A. & Suh, K. S. (2015). Clinical decision support systems for improving diagnostic accuracy and achieving precision medicine. Journal of Clinical Bioinformatics, 5, 1\u201316.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13336-015-0019-3"},{"key":"554_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2507","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp1702071","volume":"376","author":"JH Chen","year":"2017","unstructured":"Chen, J. H., & Asch, S. M. (2017). Machine learning and prediction in medicine\u2014beyond the peak of inflated expectations. The New England Journal of Medicine, 376, 2507.","journal-title":"The New England Journal of Medicine"},{"key":"554_CR47","first-page":"53","volume":"30","author":"R Crootof","year":"2016","unstructured":"Crootof, R. (2016). A meaningful floor for meaningful human control. Temp Int\u2019l & Comp LJ, 30, 53.","journal-title":"Temp Int\u2019l & Comp LJ"},{"key":"554_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1109\/MTS.2019.2948438","volume":"38","author":"ML Cummings","year":"2019","unstructured":"Cummings, M. L. (2019). Lethal autonomous weapons: Meaningful human control or meaningful human certification? IEEE Technology and Society Magazine, 38, 20\u201326.","journal-title":"IEEE Technology and Society Magazine"},{"key":"554_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davis, J., & Nathan, L. P. (2015). Value sensitive design: Applications, adaptations, and critiques. In Handbook of ethics, values, and technological design: Sources, theory, values and application domains. (pp. 11\u201340).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-6970-0_3"},{"key":"554_CR17","unstructured":"de Santoni, F., & Mecacci, G. (2021). Four responsibility gaps with artificial intelligence: Why they matter and how to address them. Philosophy & Technology, 1\u201328."},{"key":"554_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1111\/1758-5899.12665","volume":"10","author":"M Ekelhof","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ekelhof, M. (2019). Moving beyond semantics on autonomous weapons: Meaningful human control in operation. Global Policy, 10, 343\u2013348.","journal-title":"Global Policy"},{"key":"#cr-split#-554_CR8.1","unstructured":"European Union (2022). Regulation"},{"key":"#cr-split#-554_CR8.2","unstructured":"(EU) 2022\/2065 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 October 2022 on a single market for digital services (Digital Services Act) and amending Directive 2000\/31\/EC. In European Union."},{"key":"554_CR7","unstructured":"European Commission (2022). Proposal for a directive on adapting non-contractual civil liability rules to artificial intelligence (AI Liability Directive). In COM(2022) 496 final, 28 September."},{"key":"554_CR34","unstructured":"European Commission (2019). High-level expert group on artificial intelligence. Ethics Guidelines for Trustworthy AI, 6."},{"key":"554_CR2","first-page":"1","volume":"12 July","author":"European Union","year":"2024","unstructured":"European Union (2024). Regulation (EU) 2024\/1689 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence (Artificial intelligence Act) and amending certain union legislative acts. In L 168, 12 July, (pp.1\u201384).","journal-title":"In L 168"},{"key":"554_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1515\/pjbr-2019-0002","volume":"10","author":"F Ficuciello","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ficuciello, F., Tamburrini, G., Arezzo, A., Villani, L., & Siciliano, B. (2019). Autonomy in surgical robots and its meaningful human control. Paladyn Journal of Behavioral Robotics, 10, 30\u201343.","journal-title":"Paladyn Journal of Behavioral Robotics"},{"key":"554_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2016.10.464","volume":"49","author":"F Flemisch","year":"2016","unstructured":"Flemisch, F., Abbink, D., Itoh, M., Pacaux-Lemoine, M. P., & We\u00dfel, G. (2016). Shared control is the sharp end of cooperation: Towards a common framework of joint action, shared control and human machine Cooperation. IFAC-PapersOnLine, 49, 72\u201377.","journal-title":"IFAC-PapersOnLine"},{"key":"554_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Friedman, B., Smith, I., KahnJr, P. H., Consolvo, S., & Selawski, J. (2006). Development of a privacy addendum for open source licenses: Value sensitive design in industry. In International conference on ubiquitous computing (pp. 194\u2013211). Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/11853565_12"},{"key":"554_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1561\/1100000015","volume":"11","author":"B Friedman","year":"2017","unstructured":"Friedman, B., Hendry, D. G., & Borning, A. (2017). A survey of value sensitive design methods. Foundations and Trends\u00ae in Human\u2013Computer Interaction, 11, 63\u2013125.","journal-title":"Foundations and Trends\u00ae in Human\u2013Computer Interaction"},{"key":"554_CR49","unstructured":"Gaeta, P. (2016). Autonomous weapon systems and the alleged responsibility gap. In Autonomous weapons systems. Implications of increasing autonomy in the critical functions of weapons."},{"key":"554_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2402","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.17216","volume":"316","author":"V Gulshan","year":"2016","unstructured":"Gulshan, V., Peng, L., Coram, M., Stumpe, M. C., Wu, D., Narayanaswamy, A., Venugopalan, S., Widner, K., Madams, T., & Cuadros, J. (2016). Development and validation of a deep learning algorithm for detection of diabetic retinopathy in retinal fundus photographs. Jama, 316, 2402\u20132410.","journal-title":"Jama"},{"key":"554_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1836","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdy166","volume":"29","author":"HA Haenssle","year":"2018","unstructured":"Haenssle, H. A., Fink, C., Schneiderbauer, R., Toberer, F., Buhl, T., Blum, A., Kalloo, A., Hassen, A. B. H., Thomas, L., & Enk, A. (2018). Man against machine: Diagnostic performance of a deep learning convolutional neural network for dermoscopic melanoma recognition in comparison to 58 dermatologists. Annals of Oncology, 29, 1836\u20131842.","journal-title":"Annals of Oncology"},{"key":"554_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-021-00054-3","volume":"1","author":"C Henin","year":"2021","unstructured":"Henin, C., Le, D., & M\u00e9tayer (2021). A framework to contest and justify algorithmic decisions. AI and Ethics, 1, 463\u2013476.","journal-title":"AI and Ethics"},{"key":"554_CR57","unstructured":"Heyns, C. H. (2014). Report of the special rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions. United Nations General Assembly."},{"key":"554_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hirsch, T., Merced, K., Narayanan, S., Imel, Z. E., & Atkins, D. C. (2017). Designing contestability: Interaction design, machine learning, and mental health. In Proceedings of the 2017 conference on designing interactive systems, (pp. 95\u201399).","DOI":"10.1145\/3064663.3064703"},{"key":"554_CR56","unstructured":"Horowitz, M. C., & Scharre, P. (2015). Meaningful human control in weapon systems. CNAS."},{"key":"554_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102926","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2022.102926","volume":"170","author":"J Inga","year":"2023","unstructured":"Inga, J., Ruess, M., Robens, J. H., Nelius, T., Rothfu\u00df, S., Kille, S., Dahlinger, P., Lindenmann, A., Thomaschke, R., & Neumann, G. (2023). Human-machine symbiosis: A multivariate perspective for physically coupled human-machine systems. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 170, 102926.","journal-title":"International Journal of Human-Computer Studies"},{"key":"554_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1177\/160940690900800406","volume":"8","author":"Y Jabareen","year":"2009","unstructured":"Jabareen, Y. (2009). Building a conceptual framework: Philosophy, definitions, and procedure. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 8, 49\u201362.","journal-title":"International Journal of Qualitative Methods"},{"key":"554_CR25","first-page":"2","volume":"96","author":"ET Jensen","year":"2020","unstructured":"Jensen, E. T. (2020). The (erroneous) requirement for human judgment (and error) in the law of armed conflict. International Law Studies, 96, 2.","journal-title":"International Law Studies"},{"key":"554_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.5898\/JHRI.3.1.Johnson","volume":"3","author":"M Johnson","year":"2014","unstructured":"Johnson, M., Bradshaw, J. M., Feltovich, P. J., Jonker, C. M., Van Riemsdijk, M. B., & Sierhuis, M. (2014). Coactive design: Designing support for interdependence in joint activity. Journal of Human-Robot Interaction, 3, 43\u201369.","journal-title":"Journal of Human-Robot Interaction"},{"key":"554_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, S., Anthis, J. R., & Sebo, S. (2024). A taxonomy of robot autonomy for human-robot interaction. In Proceedings of the 2024 ACM\/IEEE international conference on human-robot interaction (pp. 381\u2009\u2013\u2009 393).","DOI":"10.1145\/3610977.3634993"},{"key":"554_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1716","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-018-0213-5","volume":"24","author":"M Komorowski","year":"2018","unstructured":"Komorowski, M., Celi, L. A., Badawi, O., Gordon, A. C., & Faisal, A. A. (2018). The artificial intelligence clinician learns optimal treatment strategies for sepsis in intensive care. Nature Medicine, 24, 1716\u20131720.","journal-title":"Nature Medicine"},{"key":"554_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwik, J. (2022). A practicable operationalisation of meaningful human control, Laws, 11, 43.","DOI":"10.3390\/laws11030043"},{"key":"554_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1007\/s12553-021-00520-2","volume":"11","author":"JD L\u00f3pez-Cabrera","year":"2021","unstructured":"L\u00f3pez-Cabrera, J. D., Orozco-Morales, R., Portal-Diaz, J. A., Lovelle-Enr\u00edquez, O., & P\u00e9rez-D\u00edaz, M. (2021). Current limitations to identify COVID-19 using artificial intelligence with chest X-ray imaging. Health and Technology, 11, 411\u2013424.","journal-title":"Health and Technology"},{"key":"554_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lupia, A. (2003). Delegation and its Perils (na).","DOI":"10.1093\/019829784X.003.0002"},{"key":"554_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lyons, H., Velloso, E., & Miller, T. (2021). Conceptualising contestability: Perspectives on contesting algorithmic decisions. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 5, 1\u201325.","DOI":"10.1145\/3449180"},{"key":"554_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-004-3422-1","volume":"6","author":"A Matthias","year":"2004","unstructured":"Matthias, A. (2004). The responsibility gap: Ascribing responsibility for the actions of learning automata. Ethics and Information Technology, 6, 175\u2013183.","journal-title":"Ethics and Information Technology"},{"key":"554_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mecacci, G., & de Sio, F. S. (2019). Meaningful human control as reason-responsiveness: The case of dual-mode vehicles. Ethics and Information Technology, 1\u201313.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-019-09519-w"},{"key":"554_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michon, J. A. (1985). A critical view of driver behavior models: What do we know, what should we do? In Human behavior and traffic safety. Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-2173-6_19"},{"key":"554_CR66","unstructured":"Nutley, S., Davies, H., & Walter, I. (2002). Conceptual synthesis 1: Learning from the diffusion of innovations (Citeseer)."},{"key":"554_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-020-00666-5","volume":"13","author":"L Onnasch","year":"2021","unstructured":"Onnasch, L., & Roesler, E. (2021). A taxonomy to structure and analyze human\u2013robot interaction. International Journal of Social Robotics, 13, 833\u2013849.","journal-title":"International Journal of Social Robotics"},{"key":"554_CR51","unstructured":"Roff, H. M., & Moyes, R. (2016). Meaningful human control, artificial intelligence and autonomous weapons. In Briefing paper prepared for the informal meeting of experts on lethal Au-Tonomous weapons systems, UN Convention on certain conventional weapons."},{"key":"554_CR40","unstructured":"SAE. (2018). SAE J3016: Taxonomy and definitions for terms related to on-road motor vehicle automated driving systems. On-Road Automated Vehicle Standards Committee SAE."},{"key":"554_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santoni de Sio, F., & Van den Hoven, J. (2018). Meaningful human control over autonomous systems, a philosophical account. Frontiers in Robotics and AI.","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2018.00015"},{"key":"554_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20200003","DOI":"10.1515\/gj-2020-0003","volume":"20","author":"C Sarra","year":"2020","unstructured":"Sarra, C. (2020). Put dialectics into the machine: Protection against automatic-decision-making through a deeper understanding of contestability by design. Global Jurist, 20, 20200003.","journal-title":"Global Jurist"},{"key":"554_CR45","first-page":"379","volume":"8","author":"AL Schuller","year":"2017","unstructured":"Schuller, A. L. (2017). At the crossroads of control: The intersection of artificial intelligence in autonomous weapon systems with international humanitarian law. Harvard National Security Journal, 8, 379.","journal-title":"Harv Nat\u2019l Sec J"},{"key":"554_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharkey, N. (2016). Staying in the loop: Human supervisory control of weapons. Autonomous Weapons Systems: Law, Ethics, Policy 23\u201338.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781316597873.002"},{"key":"554_CR18","unstructured":"Skeete, J. P. (2021). The \u2018AI problem\u2019: A public policy perspective."},{"key":"554_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-5930.2007.00346.x","volume":"24","author":"R Sparrow","year":"2007","unstructured":"Sparrow, R. (2007). Killer robots. Journal of Applied Philosophy, 24, 62\u201377.","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Philosophy"},{"key":"554_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1038\/s42256-019-0136-y","volume":"2","author":"A Theodorou","year":"2020","unstructured":"Theodorou, A., & Dignum, V. (2020). Towards ethical and socio-legal governance in AI. Nature Machine Intelligence, 2, 10\u201312.","journal-title":"Nature Machine Intelligence"},{"key":"554_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaccaro, K., Xiao, Z., Hamilton, K., & Karahalios, K. (2021). Contestability for content moderation. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 5, 1\u201328.","DOI":"10.1145\/3476059"},{"key":"554_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van de Poel, I. (2011). The relation between forward-looking and backward-looking responsibility. In Moral responsibility: Beyond free will and determinism. Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-1878-4_3"},{"key":"554_CR69","unstructured":"Van den Berg, J. (2015). Wat maakt cyber security anders dan informatiebeveiliging. Magazine Nationale Veiligheid en Crisisbeheersing, 2, 2015."},{"key":"554_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/s11023-020-09532-9","volume":"31","author":"I Verdiesen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Verdiesen, I., Santoni de, F., Sio, & Dignum, V. (2021). Accountability and control over autonomous weapon systems: A framework for comprehensive human oversight. Minds and Machines, 31, 137\u2013163.","journal-title":"Minds and Machines"},{"key":"554_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-020-01066-z","volume":"36","author":"J Walmsley","year":"2021","unstructured":"Walmsley, J. (2021). Artificial intelligence and the value of transparency. AI & SOCIETY, 36, 585\u2013595.","journal-title":"AI & SOCIETY"},{"key":"554_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-022-01607-8","volume":"38","author":"V Yazdanpanah","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yazdanpanah, V., Gerding, E. H., Stein, S., Dastani, M., Jonker, C. M., Norman, T. J., & Ramchurn, S. D. (2023). Reasoning about responsibility in autonomous systems: Challenges and opportunities. AI & SOCIETY, 38, 1453\u20131464.","journal-title":"AI & SOCIETY"}],"container-title":["Science and Engineering Ethics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11948-025-00554-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11948-025-00554-z","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11948-025-00554-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T11:25:08Z","timestamp":1781609108000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s11948-025-00554-z"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,24]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["554"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11948-025-00554-z","relation":{},"ISSN":["1471-5546"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1471-5546","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,24]]},"assertion":[{"value":"23 September 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"4 August 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"24 September 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The author declare that they have no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing Interests"}}],"article-number":"27"}}