{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T22:13:43Z","timestamp":1780438423140,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,25]],"date-time":"2025-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753401600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,25]],"date-time":"2025-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753401600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Peer-to-Peer Netw. Appl."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s12083-025-02032-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,25]],"date-time":"2025-07-25T08:55:14Z","timestamp":1753433714000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Scalable & secure real-world asset tokenization using ethereum staking & layer-2 solutions"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Xiaofei","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jieqiong","family":"Ding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yunqi","family":"Su","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hua","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fanglin","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qianggang","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mingyang","family":"Mu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,25]]},"reference":[{"issue":"6","key":"2032_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1108\/JPIF-07-2024-0087","volume":"42","author":"SF Mottaghi","year":"2024","unstructured":"Mottaghi SF, Steininger BI, Yanagawa N (2024) Real estate insights: The current state and the new future of tokenization in real estate. J Property Invest Finance 42(6):614\u2013620. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/JPIF-07-2024-0087","journal-title":"J Property Invest Finance"},{"key":"2032_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gong H (2024) In: Gong H (ed) Tokenised Real-World Assets (RWA) and Decentralised Physical Infrastructure Networks (DePIN), pp 175\u2013197. Apress, Berkeley, CA. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/979-8-8688-0491-5_6","DOI":"10.1007\/979-8-8688-0491-5_6"},{"issue":"1","key":"2032_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2178","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-05920-6","volume":"12","author":"SMH Bamakan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Bamakan SMH, Nezhadsistani N, Bodaghi O, Qu Q (2022) Patents and intellectual property assets as non-fungible tokens; key technologies and challenges. Sci Reports 12(1):2178. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-022-05920-6","journal-title":"Sci Reports"},{"key":"2032_CR4","unstructured":"Ferrezuelo RD (2023) Risk assessment of digital assets insurance applications in cryptocurrencies and nfts"},{"issue":"4","key":"2032_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bushor.2018.03.006","volume":"61","author":"Y Chen","year":"2018","unstructured":"Chen Y (2018) Blockchain tokens and the potential democratization of entrepreneurship and innovation. Business Horizons 61(4):567\u2013575. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bushor.2018.03.006","journal-title":"Business Horizons"},{"issue":"6","key":"2032_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bushor.2019.08.003","volume":"62","author":"JY Lee","year":"2019","unstructured":"Lee JY (2019) A decentralized token economy: How blockchain and cryptocurrency can revolutionize business. Business Horizons 62(6):773\u2013784. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bushor.2019.08.003","journal-title":"Business Horizons"},{"issue":"10","key":"2032_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.3905\/jpm.2021.1.260","volume":"47","author":"A Baum","year":"2021","unstructured":"Baum A (2021) Tokenization\u2013the future of real estate investment. The J Portfolio Manage 47(10):41\u201361","journal-title":"The J Portfolio Manage"},{"issue":"5","key":"2032_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1534","DOI":"10.4236\/tel.2019.95099","volume":"9","author":"F Mazzorana-Kremer","year":"2019","unstructured":"Mazzorana-Kremer F (2019) Blockchain-based equity and stos: Towards a liquid market for sme financing? Theoret Econ Lett 9(5):1534\u20131552. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4236\/tel.2019.95099","journal-title":"Theoret Econ Lett"},{"key":"2032_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Alamsyah A, Muhammad IF (2024) Unraveling the crypto market: A journey into decentralized finance transaction network. Digital Business 4(1):100074. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.digbus.2024.100074","DOI":"10.1016\/j.digbus.2024.100074"},{"key":"2032_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Jameaba M-S (2024) Digitalization, Emerging Technologies, and Financial Stability: Challenges and Opportunities for the Indonesian Banking Sector and Beyond. [Online; accessed 3. Jan. 2025]. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.4808469 . https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4808469","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4808469"},{"issue":"5","key":"2032_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1551","DOI":"10.1108\/JEIM-03-2023-0112","volume":"37","author":"I Christodoulou","year":"2024","unstructured":"Christodoulou I, Rizomyliotis I, Konstantoulaki K, Nazarian A, Binh D (2024) Transforming the remittance industry: harnessing the power of blockchain technology. J Enterprise Inf Manage 37(5):1551\u20131577. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/JEIM-03-2023-0112","journal-title":"J Enterprise Inf Manage"},{"key":"2032_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Welfare A (2019) Commercializing Blockchain: Strategic Applications in the Real World. John Wiley & Sons, ???","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119578048"},{"key":"2032_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"He Z, Li Z, Yang S, Qiao A, Zhang X, Luo X, Chen T (2024) Large language models for blockchain security: A systematic literature review. ArXiv e-prints. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2403.14280","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2403.14280"},{"issue":"2","key":"2032_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1007\/s12083-021-01268-2","volume":"15","author":"X Cao","year":"2022","unstructured":"Cao X, Zhang J, Wu X, Liu B (2022) A survey on security in consensus and smart contracts. Peer-to-Peer Netw Appl 15(2):1008\u20131028. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12083-021-01268-2","journal-title":"Peer-to-Peer Netw Appl"},{"key":"2032_CR15","unstructured":"Series OBP (2020) The tokenisation of assets and potential implications for financial markets. The Secretary General of the OECD 107"},{"key":"2032_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Cappai M (2023) The role of private and public regulation in the case study of crypto-assets: The italian move towards participatory regulation. Comput Law Secur Rev 49:105831. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.clsr.2023.105831","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clsr.2023.105831"},{"key":"2032_CR17","unstructured":"Baltais M, Sondore E, Putni\u0146\u0161a TJ, Karlsen JR (2024) Economic impact potential of real-world asset tokenization. UTS Business School, University of Technology Sydney, Report, 2024\u201306"},{"key":"2032_CR18","unstructured":"Edelman R (2022) The Truth About Crypto: A Practical, Easy-to-Understand Guide to Bitcoin, Blockchain, NFTs, and Other Digital Assets. Simon and Schuster, ???"},{"key":"2032_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sguanci C, Spatafora R, Vergani AM (2021) Layer 2 blockchain scaling: a survey. ArXiv e-prints https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2107.10881","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2107.10881"},{"key":"2032_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Mandal M, Chishti MS, Banerjee A. Investigating layer-2 scalability solutions for blockchain applications. In: 2023 IEEE International Conference on High Performance Computing & Communications, Data Science & Systems, Smart City & Dependability in Sensor, Cloud & Big Data Systems & Application (HPCC\/DSS\/SmartCity\/DependSys), pp 710\u2013717. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/HPCC-DSS-SmartCity-DependSys60770.2023.00101","DOI":"10.1109\/HPCC-DSS-SmartCity-DependSys60770.2023.00101"},{"key":"2032_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Michelson K, Sridharan A, Cabuk UC, Reesor E, Stolman B, Mailen D, Bunfield D, Smith J, Snow P (2022) Accumulate: An identity-based blockchain protocol with cross-chain support, human-readable addresses, and key management capabilities. ArXiv e-prints. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2204.06878","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2204.06878"},{"key":"2032_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grandjean D, Heimbach L, Wattenhofer R (2024) Ethereum proof-of-stake consensus layer: Participation and decentralization. In: Budurushi J, Kulyk O, Allen S, Diamandis T, Klages-Mundt A, Bracciali A, Goodell G, Matsuo S (eds) Financial Cryptography and Data Security. FC 2024 International Workshops, pp 253\u2013280. Springer","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-69231-4_17"},{"key":"2032_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Takei Y, Shudo K. Effective ethereum staking in cryptocurrency exchanges. In: 2024 IEEE International Conference on Blockchain (Blockchain), pp 332\u2013339. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/Blockchain62396.2024.00050","DOI":"10.1109\/Blockchain62396.2024.00050"},{"key":"2032_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Cong LW, He Z, Tang K (2022) The Tokenomics of Staking. [Online; accessed 4. Jan. 2025]. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.4059460 . https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/Papers.cfm?abstract_id=4059460","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4059460"},{"key":"2032_CR25","unstructured":"McCorry P, Buckland C, Yee B, Song D (2021) Sok: Validating bridges as a scaling solution for blockchains. Cryptol ePrint Archive"},{"key":"2032_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12030664","author":"DL Fekete","year":"2023","unstructured":"Fekete DL, Kiss A (2023). Toward Building Smart Contract-Based Higher Education Systems Using Zero-Knowledge Ethereum Virtual Machine. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/electronics12030664","journal-title":"Toward Building Smart Contract-Based Higher Education Systems Using Zero-Knowledge Ethereum Virtual Machine"},{"key":"2032_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kim SK, Ma Z, Murali S, Mason J, Miller A, Bailey M (2018) Measuring Ethereum Network Peers. Ass Comput Mach. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3278532.3278542","DOI":"10.1145\/3278532.3278542"},{"key":"2032_CR28","unstructured":"Zhang L, Lee B, Ye Y, Qiao Y. Ethereum transaction performance evaluation using test-nets. In: Schwardmann U, Boehme C, B\u00a0Heras D, Cardellini V, Jeannot E, Salis A, Schifanella C, Manumachu RR, Schwamborn D, Ricci L, Sangyoon O, Gruber T, Antonelli L, Scott SL (eds) Euro-Par 2019: Parallel Processing Workshops, pp 179\u2013190. Springer"},{"key":"#cr-split#-2032_CR29.1","unstructured":"Aspris A, Dyhrberg AH, Putni\u0146\u0161 TJ, Foley S (2022) Digital Assets and Markets: A Transaction-Cost analysis of market architectures. [Online"},{"key":"#cr-split#-2032_CR29.2","unstructured":"accessed 3. Jan. 2025]. https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4301258"},{"key":"2032_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wijesekara PA, Gunawardena S (2023) A Review of Blockchain Technology in Knowledge-Defined Networking, Its Application, Benefits, and Challenges. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/network3030017","DOI":"10.3390\/network3030017"},{"key":"2032_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Esmat A, Vos M, Ghiassi-Farrokhfal Y, Palensky P, Epema D (2021) A novel decentralized platform for peer-to-peer energy trading market with blockchain technology. Appl Energy 282:116123. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.apenergy.2020.116123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2020.116123"},{"issue":"4","key":"2032_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1108\/IMEFM-04-2024-0195","volume":"17","author":"H Ahmed","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ahmed H (2024) Security tokens, ecosystems and financial inclusion: Islamic perspectives. Int J Islamic Middle Eastern Finance Manage 17(4):730\u2013745. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/IMEFM-04-2024-0195","journal-title":"Int J Islamic Middle Eastern Finance Manage"},{"issue":"10","key":"2032_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1145\/3567582","volume":"55","author":"A Pasdar","year":"2023","unstructured":"Pasdar A, Lee YC, Dong Z (2023) Connect api with blockchain: A survey on blockchain oracle implementation. ACM Comput Surv 55(10):208. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3567582","journal-title":"ACM Comput Surv"},{"key":"2032_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ciriello RF (2021) Tokenized index funds: A blockchain-based concept and a multidisciplinary research framework. Int J Inf Manage 61:102400. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijinfomgt.2021.102400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijinfomgt.2021.102400"},{"issue":"4","key":"2032_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1007\/s12599-021-00684-1","volume":"63","author":"A Sunyaev","year":"2021","unstructured":"Sunyaev A, Kannengie\u00dfer N, Beck R, Treiblmaier H, Lacity M, Kranz J, Fridgen G, Spankowski U, Luckow A (2021) Token economy. Business Inf Syst Eng 63(4):457\u2013478. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12599-021-00684-1","journal-title":"Business Inf Syst Eng"},{"key":"2032_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Androulaki E, Camenisch J, Caro AD, Dubovitskaya M, Elkhiyaoui K, Tackmann B (2020) Privacy-preserving auditable token payments in a permissioned blockchain system. Ass Comput Mach. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3419614.3423259.","DOI":"10.1145\/3419614.3423259."},{"key":"2032_CR37","unstructured":"Heines R, Dick C, Pohle C, Jung R (2021) The tokenization of everything: Towards a framework for understanding the potentials of tokenized assets. PACIS 40"},{"key":"2032_CR38","unstructured":"Ahmadi S (2020) A Tokenization System for the Kurdish Language. ACL Anthology, 114\u2013127"},{"key":"2032_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Monrat AA, Schel\u00e9n O, Andersson K (2019) A survey of blockchain from the perspectives of applications, challenges, and opportunities. IEEE Access 7:117134\u2013117151. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2936094","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2936094"},{"key":"2032_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Reyna A, Mart\u00edn C, Chen J, Soler E, D\u00edaz M (2018) On blockchain and its integration with iot. challenges and opportunities. Future Gener Comput Syst 88:173\u2013190. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.future.2018.05.046","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2018.05.046"},{"key":"2032_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zheng Z, Xie S, Dai H-N, Chen W, Chen X, Weng J, Imran M (2020) An overview on smart contracts: Challenges, advances and platforms. Future Gener Comput Syst 105:475\u2013491. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.future.2019.12.019","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2019.12.019"},{"key":"2032_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sayeed S, Marco-Gisbert H, Caira T (2020) Smart contract: Attacks and protections. IEEE Access 8:24416\u201324427. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2970495","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2970495"},{"issue":"11","key":"2032_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"0225196","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0225196","volume":"14","author":"Y Fang","year":"2019","unstructured":"Fang Y, Han S, Huang C, Wu R (2019) Tap: A static analysis model for php vulnerabilities based on token and deep learning technology. PLOS ONE 14(11):0225196. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0225196","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"2032_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chod J, Trichakis N, Yang SA (2022) Platform tokenization: Financing, governance, and moral hazard. Manage Sci","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.2021.4225"},{"issue":"8","key":"2032_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1145\/3471140","volume":"54","author":"R Belchior","year":"2021","unstructured":"Belchior R, Vasconcelos A, Guerreiro S, Correia M (2021) A survey on blockchain interoperability: Past, present, and future trends. ACM Comput Surv 54(8):168. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3471140","journal-title":"ACM Comput Surv"},{"key":"2032_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Beniiche A (2020) A study of blockchain oracles. ArXiv e-prints https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2004.07140","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2004.07140"},{"key":"2032_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Choo S, Kim W (2023) A study on the evaluation of tokenizer performance in natural language processing. Appl Artif Intell 37(1):2175112. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/08839514.2023.2175112","DOI":"10.1080\/08839514.2023.2175112"}],"container-title":["Peer-to-Peer Networking and Applications"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s12083-025-02032-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s12083-025-02032-6\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s12083-025-02032-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,17]],"date-time":"2025-10-17T06:38:55Z","timestamp":1760683135000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s12083-025-02032-6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,25]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["2032"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12083-025-02032-6","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-5759969\/v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1936-6442","1936-6450"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1936-6442","type":"print"},{"value":"1936-6450","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,25]]},"assertion":[{"value":"3 January 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"30 May 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 July 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing Interests"}}],"article-number":"254"}}