{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T05:12:45Z","timestamp":1780636365953,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,6]],"date-time":"2021-07-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1625529600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,6]],"date-time":"2021-07-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1625529600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int J of Soc Robotics"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Autonomous mobile robots that operate in environments with people are expected to be able to deal with human proxemics and social distances. Previous research investigated how robots can approach persons or how to implement human-aware navigation algorithms. However, experimental research on how robots can avoid a person in a comfortable way is largely missing. The aim of the current work is to experimentally determine the shape and size of personal space of a human passed by a robot. In two studies, both a humanoid as well as a non-humanoid robot were used to pass a person at different sides and distances, after which they were asked to rate their perceived comfort. As expected, perceived comfort increases with distance. However, the shape was not circular: passing at the back of a person is more uncomfortable compared to passing at the front, especially in the case of the humanoid robot. These results give us more insight into the shape and size of personal space in human\u2013robot interaction. Furthermore, they can serve as necessary input to human-aware navigation algorithms for autonomous mobile robots in which human comfort is traded off with efficiency goals.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-021-00805-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,6]],"date-time":"2021-07-06T15:04:29Z","timestamp":1625583869000},"page":"561-572","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":65,"title":["Determining Shape and Size of Personal Space of a Human when Passed by a Robot"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1144-7580","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Margot M. E.","family":"Neggers","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Raymond H.","family":"Cuijpers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter A. M.","family":"Ruijten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wijnand A.","family":"IJsselsteijn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,6]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"805_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01145461","volume":"1","author":"JR Aiello","year":"1977","unstructured":"Aiello JR (1977) A further look at equilibrium theory: visual interaction as a function of interpersonal distance. Environ Psychol Nonverbal Behav 1(2):122\u2013140","journal-title":"Environ Psychol Nonverbal Behav"},{"key":"805_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Argyle M, Dean J (1965) Eye-contact, distance and affiliation. Sociometry pp 289\u2013304","DOI":"10.2307\/2786027"},{"issue":"6","key":"805_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1162\/105474601753272844","volume":"10","author":"JN Bailenson","year":"2001","unstructured":"Bailenson JN, Blascovich J, Beall AC, Loomis JM (2001) Equilibrium theory revisited: mutual gaze and personal space in virtual environments. Presence Teleoperators Virtual Environ 10(6):583\u2013598","journal-title":"Presence Teleoperators Virtual Environ"},{"issue":"2","key":"805_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.2466\/pr0.1976.38.2.383","volume":"38","author":"SJ Beck","year":"1976","unstructured":"Beck SJ, Ollendick TH (1976) Personal space, sex of experimenter, and locus of control in normal and delinquent adolescents. Psychol Rep 38(2):383\u2013387","journal-title":"Psychol Rep"},{"issue":"2","key":"805_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jamda.2010.10.002","volume":"13","author":"R Bemelmans","year":"2012","unstructured":"Bemelmans R, Gelderblom GJ, Jonker P, De Witte L (2012) Socially assistive robots in elderly care: a systematic review into effects and effectiveness. J Am Med Dir Assoc 13(2):114\u2013120","journal-title":"J Am Med Dir Assoc"},{"issue":"3","key":"805_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1177\/0013916505280081","volume":"38","author":"S Bitgood","year":"2006","unstructured":"Bitgood S, Dukes S (2006) Not another step! economy of movement and pedestrian choice point behavior in shopping malls. Environ Behav 38(3):394\u2013405","journal-title":"Environ Behav"},{"key":"805_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2016.09.026","volume":"66","author":"K Charalampous","year":"2016","unstructured":"Charalampous K, Kostavelis I, Gasteratos A (2016) Robot navigation in large-scale social maps: an action recognition approach. Expert Syst Appl 66:261\u2013273","journal-title":"Expert Syst Appl"},{"issue":"3","key":"805_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-6918(01)00046-4","volume":"108","author":"RH Cuijpers","year":"2001","unstructured":"Cuijpers RH, Kappers AM, Koenderink JJ (2001) On the role of external reference frames on visual judgements of parallelity. Acta Psychol 108(3):283\u2013302","journal-title":"Acta Psychol"},{"key":"805_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elkmann N, Hortig J, Fritzsche M (2009) Cleaning automation. In: Springer Handbook of Automation, Springer, pp 1253\u20131264","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-78831-7_70"},{"issue":"2","key":"805_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2007.03.015","volume":"27","author":"M G\u00e9rin-Lajoie","year":"2008","unstructured":"G\u00e9rin-Lajoie M, Richards CL, Fung J, McFadyen BJ (2008) Characteristics of personal space during obstacle circumvention in physical and virtual environments. Gait Posture 27(2):239\u2013247","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"805_CR11","volume-title":"The hidden dimension","author":"ET Hall","year":"1966","unstructured":"Hall ET (1966) The hidden dimension. Anchor Books, New York"},{"issue":"1","key":"805_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.85.1.117","volume":"85","author":"LA Hayduk","year":"1978","unstructured":"Hayduk LA (1978) Personal space: an evaluative and orienting overview. Psychol Bull 85(1):117","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"issue":"1","key":"805_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1037\/h0081114","volume":"13","author":"LA Hayduk","year":"1981","unstructured":"Hayduk LA (1981) The shape of personal space: an experimental investigation. Can J Behav Sci Rev Canadienne Des Sciences du Comportement 13(1):87","journal-title":"Can J Behav Sci Rev Canadienne Des Sciences du Comportement"},{"key":"805_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2018.12.009","volume":"193","author":"H Hecht","year":"2019","unstructured":"Hecht H, Welsch R, Viehoff J, Longo MR (2019) The shape of personal space. Acta Psychol 193:113\u2013122","journal-title":"Acta Psychol"},{"issue":"5","key":"805_CR15","first-page":"4282","volume":"51","author":"D Helbing","year":"1995","unstructured":"Helbing D, Molnar P (1995) Social force model for pedestrian dynamics. Phys Rev 51(5):4282","journal-title":"Phys Rev"},{"key":"805_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Henry P, Vollmer C, Ferris B, Fox D (2010) Learning to navigate through crowded environments. In: 2010 IEEE international conference on robotics and automation, IEEE, pp 981\u2013986","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.2010.5509772"},{"key":"805_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kanda A, Arai M, Suzuki R, Kobayashi Y, Kuno Y (2014) Recognizing groups of visitors for a robot museum guide tour. In: 2014 7th international conference on human system interactions (HSI), IEEE, pp 123\u2013128","DOI":"10.1109\/HSI.2014.6860460"},{"key":"805_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kirby R, Simmons R, Forlizzi J (2009) Companion: a constraint-optimizing method for person-acceptable navigation. In: RO-MAN 2009-The 18th IEEE international symposium on robot and human interactive communication, IEEE, pp 607\u2013612","DOI":"10.1109\/ROMAN.2009.5326271"},{"key":"805_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koay KL, Syrdal D, Bormann R, Saunders J, Walters ML, Dautenhahn K (2017) Initial design, implementation and technical evaluation of a context-aware proxemics planner for a social robot. In: International conference on social robotics, Springer, pp 12\u201322","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-70022-9_2"},{"issue":"3","key":"805_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2010.09.022","volume":"20","author":"J Krueger","year":"2011","unstructured":"Krueger J (2011) Extended cognition and the space of social interaction. Conscious Cogn 20(3):643\u2013657","journal-title":"Conscious Cogn"},{"issue":"12","key":"805_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1726","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2013.05.007","volume":"61","author":"T Kruse","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kruse T, Pandey AK, Alami R, Kirsch A (2013) Human-aware robot navigation: a survey. Robot Autono Syst 61(12):1726\u20131743","journal-title":"Robot Autono Syst"},{"key":"805_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lichtenth\u00e4eler C, Peters A, Griffiths S, Kirsch A (2013) Be a robot!: robot navigation patterns in a path crossing scenario. In: Proceedings of the 8th ACM\/IEEE international conference on Human-robot interaction, IEEE Press, pp 181\u2013182","DOI":"10.1109\/HRI.2013.6483561"},{"key":"805_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lo SY, Yamane K, Sugiyama Ki (2019) Perception of pedestrian avoidance strategies of a self-balancing mobile robot. In: 2019 IEEE\/RSJ international conference on intelligent robots and systems (IROS), IEEE, pp 1243\u20131250","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS40897.2019.8968191"},{"key":"805_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luber M, Spinello L, Silva J, Arras KO (2012) Socially-aware robot navigation: a learning approach. In: 2012 IEEE\/RSJ international conference on intelligent robots and systems, IEEE, pp 902\u2013907","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2012.6385716"},{"issue":"4","key":"805_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rcim.2009.10.003","volume":"26","author":"H Mart\u00ednez-Barber\u00e1","year":"2010","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez-Barber\u00e1 H, Herrero-P\u00e9rez D (2010) Autonomous navigation of an automated guided vehicle in industrial environments. Robot Comput Integr Manuf 26(4):296\u2013311","journal-title":"Robot Comput Integr Manuf"},{"issue":"2","key":"805_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.5898\/JHRI.5.2.Mead","volume":"5","author":"R Mead","year":"2016","unstructured":"Mead R, Matari\u0107 MJ (2016) Robots have needs too: how and why people adapt their proxemic behavior to improve robot social signal understanding. J Hum Robot Interact 5(2):48\u201368","journal-title":"J Hum Robot Interact"},{"key":"805_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neggers MME, Cuijpers RH, Ruijten PAM (2018) Comfortable passing distances for robots. In: International conference on social robotics, Springer, pp 431\u2013440","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-05204-1_42"},{"issue":"1","key":"805_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1037\/h0033961","volume":"40","author":"RC Newman","year":"1973","unstructured":"Newman RC, Pollack D (1973) Proxemics in deviant adolescents. J Consult Clin Psychol 40(1):6","journal-title":"J Consult Clin Psychol"},{"key":"805_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pacchierotti E, Christensen HI, Jensfelt P (2006) Evaluation of passing distance for social robots. In: ROMAN 2006-The 15th IEEE international symposium on robot and human interactive communication, IEEE, pp 315\u2013320","DOI":"10.1109\/ROMAN.2006.314436"},{"key":"805_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Papadakis P, Rives P, Spalanzani A (2014) Adaptive spacing in human-robot interactions. In: 2014 IEEE\/RSJ international conference on intelligent robots and systems, IEEE, pp 2627\u20132632","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2014.6942921"},{"key":"805_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramon-Vigo R, Perez-Higueras N, Caballero F, Merino L (2014) Transferring human navigation behaviors into a robot local planner. In: The 23rd IEEE international symposium on robot and human interactive communication, IEEE, pp 774\u2013779","DOI":"10.1109\/ROMAN.2014.6926347"},{"issue":"2","key":"805_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-014-0251-1","volume":"7","author":"J Rios-Martinez","year":"2015","unstructured":"Rios-Martinez J, Spalanzani A, Laugier C (2015) From proxemics theory to socially-aware navigation: a survey. Int J Social Robot 7(2):137\u2013153","journal-title":"Int J Social Robot"},{"key":"805_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rossi S, Staffa M, Bove L, Capasso R, Ercolano G (2017) User\u2019s personality and activity influence on hri comfortable distances. In: International conference on social robotics, Springer, pp 167\u2013177","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-70022-9_17"},{"key":"805_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Satake S, Kanda T, Glas DF, Imai M, Ishiguro H, Hagita N (2009) How to approach humans? strategies for social robots to initiate interaction. In: Proceedings of the 4th ACM\/IEEE international conference on Human robot interaction, pp 109\u2013116","DOI":"10.1145\/1514095.1514117"},{"issue":"6","key":"805_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-8141(97)00004-8","volume":"21","author":"S Shibata","year":"1998","unstructured":"Shibata S, Inooka H (1998) Psychological evaluations of robot motions. Int J Ind Ergon 21(6):483\u2013494","journal-title":"Int J Ind Ergon"},{"key":"805_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sisbot EA, Alami R, Sim\u00e9on T, Dautenhahn K, Walters M, Woods S (2005) Navigation in the presence of humans. In: 5th IEEE-RAS international conference on humanoid robots, 2005., IEEE, pp 181\u2013188","DOI":"10.1109\/ICHR.2005.1573565"},{"issue":"5","key":"805_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"874","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2007.904911","volume":"23","author":"EA Sisbot","year":"2007","unstructured":"Sisbot EA, Marin-Urias LF, Alami R, Simeon T (2007) A human aware mobile robot motion planner. IEEE Trans Rob 23(5):874\u2013883","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Rob"},{"key":"805_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Su H, Qi W, Hu Y, Karimi HR, Ferrigno G, De Momi E (2020) An incremental learning framework for human-like redundancy optimization of anthropomorphic manipulators. IEEE Trans Industr Inf","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2937380"},{"issue":"3","key":"805_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-013-0188-9","volume":"5","author":"E Torta","year":"2013","unstructured":"Torta E, Cuijpers RH, Juola JF (2013) Design of a parametric model of personal space for robotic social navigation. Int J Social Robot 5(3):357\u2013365","journal-title":"Int J Social Robot"},{"key":"805_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vasic M, Billard A (2013) Safety issues in human-robot interactions. In: 2013 IEEE international conference on robotics and automation, IEEE, pp 197\u2013204","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2013.6630576"},{"key":"805_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walters ML, Dautenhahn K, Te Boekhorst R, Koay KL, Kaouri C, Woods S, Nehaniv C, Lee D, Werry I, (2005) The influence of subjects\u2019 personality traits on personal spatial zones in a human-robot interaction experiment. Robot and Human Interactive Communication, (2005) ROMAN 2005. IEEE International Workshop, IEEE, pp 347\u2013352","DOI":"10.1109\/ROMAN.2005.1513803"},{"key":"805_CR42","unstructured":"Walters ML, Dautenhahn K, Te\u00a0Boekhorst R, Koay KL, Syrdal DS, Nehaniv CL (2009) An empirical framework for human-robot proxemics. New Front Hum Robot Interact"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Social Robotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s12369-021-00805-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s12369-021-00805-6\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s12369-021-00805-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,30]],"date-time":"2022-03-30T00:07:59Z","timestamp":1648598879000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s12369-021-00805-6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,6]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["805"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12369-021-00805-6","relation":{},"ISSN":["1875-4791","1875-4805"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1875-4791","type":"print"},{"value":"1875-4805","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"15 June 2021","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"6 July 2021","order":2,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declaration"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}]}}