{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T04:27:29Z","timestamp":1770697649200,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"funder":[{"name":"SIA","award":["SIA.COV.01.006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SIA.COV.01.006"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int J of Soc Robotics"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-025-01338-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,27]],"date-time":"2026-01-27T14:37:31Z","timestamp":1769524651000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Robot Social Skills: Influencing Children\u2019s Performance and Robot Perception Through a Robot Math Tutor\u2019s Scaffolding and Personalization"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2899-7143","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simone M.","family":"de Droog","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0768-9977","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mike E. U.","family":"Ligthart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0622-0552","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marianne","family":"Bossema","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1001-8103","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mirjam","family":"de Haas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8500-0269","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthijs H. J.","family":"Smakman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8789-6377","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lamia","family":"Elloumi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5707-5236","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Koen V.","family":"Hindriks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3502-4016","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Somaya","family":"Ben Allouch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,27]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"1338_CR1","first-page":"19","volume":"6","author":"Y Suleiman","year":"2019","unstructured":"Suleiman Y, Hammed A (2019) Perceived causes of students\u2019 failure in mathematics in Kwara state junior secondary schools: implication for educational managers. Int J Edu Stud Math 6(1):19\u201333","journal-title":"Int J Edu Stud Math"},{"key":"1338_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"614408","DOI":"10.3389\/fams.2021.614408","volume":"7","author":"S Chand","year":"2021","unstructured":"Chand S, Chaudhary K, Prasad A, Chand V (2021) Perceived causes of students\u2019 poor performance in mathematics: a case study at Ba and Tavua secondary schools. Front Appl Math Stat 7:614408. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fams.2021.614408","journal-title":"Front Appl Math Stat"},{"key":"1338_CR3","first-page":"32","volume":"18","author":"A Henslee","year":"2017","unstructured":"Henslee A, Klein B (2017) Using brief guided imagery to reduce math anxiety and improve math performance: a pilot study. J STEM Educ 18:32\u201336","journal-title":"J STEM Educ"},{"key":"1338_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-021-00824-3","volume":"14","author":"EA Konijn","year":"2022","unstructured":"Konijn EA, Jansen B, Mondaca Bustos V, Hobbelink VL, Preciado Vanegas D (2022) Social robots for (second) Language learning in (migrant) primary school children. Int J Soc Robot 14:827\u2013843. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12369-021-00824-3","journal-title":"Int J Soc Robot"},{"key":"1338_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aat5954","volume":"3","author":"T Belpaeme","year":"2018","unstructured":"Belpaeme T, Kennedy J, Ramachandran A, Scassellati B, Tanaka F (2018) Social robots for education: a review. Sci Robot 3:1\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/scirobotics.aat5954","journal-title":"Sci Robot"},{"key":"1338_CR6","unstructured":"Unesco UN (2022) Transforming education from within: current trends in the status and development of teachers. UNESDOC Digital Library. https:\/\/unesdoc.unesco.org\/ark:\/48223\/pf0000383002. Accessed 14 July 2023"},{"key":"1338_CR7","volume-title":"Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes","author":"LS Vygotsky","year":"1978","unstructured":"Vygotsky LS (1978) Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press, Cambridge"},{"key":"1338_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-019-00555-6","volume":"12","author":"DP Davison","year":"2020","unstructured":"Davison DP, Wijnen FM, van der Meij J, Reidsma D, Evers V (2020) Designing a social robot to support children\u2019s inquiry learning: a contextual analysis of children working together at school. Int J Soc Robot 12:883\u2013907. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12369-019-00555-6","journal-title":"Int J Soc Robot"},{"key":"1338_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Elloumi L, Bossema M, de Droog SM, Smakman MHJ, van Ginkel S, Ligthart MEU, Hoogland K, Hindriks KV, Ben Allouch S (2022) Exploring requirements and opportunities for social robots in primary mathematics education. In: Proceedings of the 31st IEEE International Conference on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (RO-MAN) pp. 316\u2013322. IEEE. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/RO-MAN53752.2022.9900569","DOI":"10.1109\/RO-MAN53752.2022.9900569"},{"issue":"2","key":"1338_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1080\/00461527409529129","volume":"11","author":"MC Wittrock","year":"1974","unstructured":"Wittrock MC (1974) Learning as a generative process. Educ Psychol 11(2):87\u201395","journal-title":"Educ Psychol"},{"key":"1338_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Westlund JMK, Park HW, Williams R, Breazeal C (2018) Measuring young children\u2019s long-term relationships with social robots. In: Proceedings of the 17th ACM conference on interaction design and children pp. 207\u2013218. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3202185.3202732","DOI":"10.1145\/3202185.3202732"},{"key":"1338_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ligthart MEU, Neerincx MA, Hindriks KV (2022) Memory-based personalization for fostering a long-term child-robot relationship. In: 17th ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) pp. 80\u201389. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/hri53351.2022.9889446","DOI":"10.1109\/hri53351.2022.9889446"},{"key":"1338_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-013-0178-y","volume":"5","author":"I Leite","year":"2013","unstructured":"Leite I, Martinho C, Paiva A (2013) Social robots for long-term interaction: a survey. Int J Soc Robot 5:291\u2013308. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12369-013-0178-y","journal-title":"Int J Soc Robot"},{"issue":"2","key":"1338_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-022-00961-3","volume":"15","author":"K Xu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Xu K, Chen M, You L (2023) The hitchhiker\u2019s guide to a credible and socially present robot: two meta-analyses of the power of social cues in human\u2013robot interaction. Int J Soc Robot 15(2):269\u2013295. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12369-022-00961-3","journal-title":"Int J Soc Robot"},{"key":"1338_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100388","DOI":"10.1016\/j.edurev.2021.100388","volume":"33","author":"H Woo","year":"2021","unstructured":"Woo H, LeTendre GK, Pham-Shouse T, Xiong Y (2021) The use of social robots in classrooms: a review of field-based studies. Educ Res Rev 33:100388. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.edurev.2021.100388","journal-title":"Educ Res Rev"},{"issue":"2","key":"1338_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.3102\/0034654318821286","volume":"89","author":"R Van den Berghe","year":"2019","unstructured":"Van den Berghe R, Verhagen J, Oudgenoeg-Paz O, Van der Ven S, Leseman P (2019) Social robots for Language learning: a review. Rev Educ Res 89(2):259\u2013295. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3102\/0034654318821286","journal-title":"Rev Educ Res"},{"key":"1338_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1787\/1c3b1d56-en","volume-title":"OECD digital education outlook 2021 pushing the frontiers with artificial Intelligence, blockchain and robots: pushing the frontiers with artificial Intelligence, blockchain and robots","author":"T Belpaeme","year":"2021","unstructured":"Belpaeme T, Tanaka F (2021) Social robots as educators. OECD digital education outlook 2021 pushing the frontiers with artificial Intelligence, blockchain and robots: pushing the frontiers with artificial Intelligence, blockchain and robots. OECD Publishing, Paris, pp 143\u2013147. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1787\/1c3b1d56-en"},{"key":"1338_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Brown L, Howard AM (2013) Engaging children in math education using a socially interactive humanoid robot. In: 13th IEEE-RAS International Conference on Humanoid Robots (Humanoids) pp. 183\u2013188. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/humanoids.2013.7029974","DOI":"10.1109\/humanoids.2013.7029974"},{"key":"1338_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kennedy J, Baxter P, Belpaeme T (2015) The robot who tried too hard: social behaviour of a robot tutor can negatively affect child learning. In: Proceedings of the tenth annual ACM\/IEEE international conference on human-robot interaction pp. 67\u201374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2696454.2696457","DOI":"10.1145\/2696454.2696457"},{"key":"1338_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Huang IS, Hoorn JF (2018) Having an Einstein in class: teaching maths with robots is different for boys and girls. In: 13th World Congress on Intelligent Control and Automation (WCICA) pp. 424\u2013427. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/wcica.2018.8630584","DOI":"10.1109\/wcica.2018.8630584"},{"key":"1338_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hindriks KV, Liebens S (2019) A robot math tutor that gives feedback. In: International Conference on Social Robotics pp. 601\u2013610. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-35888-4_56","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-35888-4_56"},{"key":"1338_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103970","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2020.103970","volume":"157","author":"EA Konijn","year":"2020","unstructured":"Konijn EA, Hoorn JF (2020) Robot tutor and pupils\u2019 educational ability: teaching the times tables. Comput Educ 157:103970. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2020.103970","journal-title":"Comput Educ"},{"key":"1338_CR23","unstructured":"De Droog SM, De Haas M, Ligthart M, Smakman M (2023) Vriendschap met robots: hoe meet je dat? HEMD Missies, Utrecht University of Applied Sciences. https:\/\/hemdmissies.nl\/vriendschap-met-robots-hoe-meet-je-dat. Accessed 21 July 2023"},{"key":"1338_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-016-0340-4","volume":"9","author":"MMA De Graaf","year":"2017","unstructured":"De Graaf MMA, Ben Allouch S (2017) The influence of prior expectations of a robot\u2019s lifelikeness on users\u2019 intentions to treat a zoomorphic robot as a companion. Int J Soc Robot 9:17\u201332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12369-016-0340-4","journal-title":"Int J Soc Robot"},{"key":"1338_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-019-00569-0","volume":"12","author":"CL Van Straten","year":"2020","unstructured":"Van Straten CL, Peter J, K\u00fchne R (2020) Child\u2013robot relationship formation: a narrative review of empirical research. Int J Soc Robot 12:325\u2013344. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12369-019-00569-0","journal-title":"Int J Soc Robot"},{"issue":"1","key":"1338_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1075\/is.18052.str","volume":"21","author":"CL Van Straten","year":"2020","unstructured":"Van Straten CL, K\u00fchne R, Peter J, De Jong C, Barco A (2020) Closeness, trust, and perceived social support in child-robot relationship formation: development and validation of three self-report scales. Interact Stud 21(1):57\u201384. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1075\/is.18052.str","journal-title":"Interact Stud"},{"issue":"2","key":"1338_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1080\/17482798.2015.1127839","volume":"10","author":"KL Brunick","year":"2016","unstructured":"Brunick KL, Putnam MM, McGarry LE, Richards MN, Calvert SL (2016) Children\u2019s future parasocial relationships with media characters: the age of intelligent characters. J Child Media 10(2):181\u2013190. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/17482798.2015.1127839","journal-title":"J Child Media"},{"key":"1338_CR28","unstructured":"Ligthart MEU (2022) Shaping the child-robot relationship: interaction design patterns for a sustainable interaction. Dissertation, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam"},{"issue":"4","key":"1338_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1799","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2013.02.009","volume":"29","author":"KJ Kim","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kim KJ, Park E, Sundar SS (2013) Caregiving role in human\u2013robot interaction: a study of the mediating effects of perceived benefit and social presence. Comput Hum Behav 29(4):1799\u20131806. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chb.2013.02.009","journal-title":"Comput Hum Behav"},{"key":"1338_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-45102-2_9","volume-title":"Media exposure during infancy and early childhood","author":"MN Richards","year":"2017","unstructured":"Richards MN, Calvert SL (2017) Media characters, parasocial relationships, and the social aspects of children\u2019s learning across media platforms. In: Barr R, Linebarger DN (eds) Media exposure during infancy and early childhood. Springer, London, pp 141\u2013163. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-45102-2_9"},{"key":"1338_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Heerink M, D\u00edaz M, Albo-Canals J, Angulo C, Barco A, Casacuberta J, Garriga C (2012) A field study with primary school children on perception of social presence and interactive behavior with a pet robot. In: RO-MAN 21st IEEE international symposium on robot and human interactive communication pp. 1045\u20131050. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/roman.2012.6343887","DOI":"10.1109\/roman.2012.6343887"},{"issue":"3","key":"1338_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1080\/08838159609364360","volume":"40","author":"C Hoffner","year":"1996","unstructured":"Hoffner C (1996) Children\u2019s wishful identification and parasocial interaction with favorite television characters. J Broadcast Electron Media 40(3):389\u2013402. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/08838159609364360","journal-title":"J Broadcast Electron Media"},{"issue":"5","key":"1338_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"962","DOI":"10.1109\/tro.2007.904904","volume":"23","author":"T Kanda","year":"2007","unstructured":"Kanda T, Sato R, Saiwaki N, Ishiguro H (2007) A two-month field trial in an elementary school for long-term human\u2013robot interaction. IEEE Trans Robot 23(5):962\u2013971. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/tro.2007.904904","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Robot"},{"issue":"5","key":"1338_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1491","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13341","volume":"91","author":"SL Calvert","year":"2020","unstructured":"Calvert SL, Putnam MM, Aguiar NR, Ryan RM, Wright CA, Liu YHA, Barba E (2020) Young children\u2019s mathematical learning from intelligent characters. Child Dev 91(5):1491\u20131508. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/cdev.13341","journal-title":"Child Dev"},{"issue":"3","key":"1338_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.117.3.497","volume":"117","author":"RF Baumeister","year":"1995","unstructured":"Baumeister RF, Leary MR (1995) The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychol Bull 117(3):497\u2013529. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-2909.117.3.497","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"key":"1338_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chen YC, Gamborino E, Fu LC, Yueh HP, Yeh SL (2021) Social presence in evaluations for a humanoid robot and its effect on children-robot relationship. In: Proceedings of the 23rd HCI international conference pp. 191\u2013199. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-78635-9_27","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-78635-9_27"},{"issue":"1","key":"1338_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3366422","volume":"9","author":"T Schodde","year":"2019","unstructured":"Schodde T, Hoffmann L, Stange S, Kopp S (2019) Adapt, explain, engage: a study on how social robots can scaffold second-language learning of children. ACM Trans Hum-Robot Interact 9(1):1\u201327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3366422","journal-title":"ACM Trans Hum-Robot Interact"},{"key":"1338_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-017-0430-y","volume":"10","author":"A Jones","year":"2018","unstructured":"Jones A, Bull S, Castellano G (2018) I know that now, i\u2019m going to learn this next: promoting self-regulated learning with a robotic tutor. Int J Soc Robot 10:439\u2013454. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12369-017-0430-y","journal-title":"Int J Soc Robot"},{"key":"1338_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"De Wit J, Schodde T, Willemsen B, Bergmann K, De Haas M, Kopp S, Krahmer E, Vogt P (2018) The effect of a robot\u2019s gestures and adaptive tutoring on children\u2019s acquisition of second language vocabularies. In: Proceedings of the ACM\/IEEE international conference on human-robot interaction pp. 50\u201358. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3171221.3171277","DOI":"10.1145\/3171221.3171277"},{"key":"1338_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2018.06.015","volume":"125","author":"A Deublein","year":"2018","unstructured":"Deublein A, Pfeifer A, Merbach K, Bruckner K, Mengelkamp C, Lugrin B (2018) Scaffolding of motivation in learning using a social robot. Comput Educ 125:182\u2013190. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2018.06.015","journal-title":"Comput Educ"},{"key":"1338_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103897","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2020.103897","volume":"153","author":"D Hillmayr","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hillmayr D, Ziernwald L, Reinhold F, Hofer SI, Reiss KM (2020) The potential of digital tools to enhance mathematics and science learning in secondary schools: a context-specific meta-analysis. Comput Educ 153:103897. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2020.103897","journal-title":"Comput Educ"},{"issue":"2","key":"1338_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.3102\/0034654316670999","volume":"87","author":"BR Belland","year":"2017","unstructured":"Belland BR, Walker AE, Kim NJ, Lefler M (2017) Synthesizing results from empirical research on computer-based scaffolding in STEM education: a meta-analysis. Rev Educ Res 87(2):309\u2013344. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3102\/0034654316670999","journal-title":"Rev Educ Res"},{"key":"1338_CR43","first-page":"106","volume":"100","author":"K Gravemeijer","year":"2005","unstructured":"Gravemeijer K (2005) Revisiting \u2018Mathematics education revisited\u2019. Freudenthal 100:106\u2013113","journal-title":"Freudenthal"},{"key":"1338_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-4978-8","volume-title":"Encyclopedia of mathematics education","author":"M Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen","year":"2014","unstructured":"Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen M, Drijvers P (2014) Realistic mathematics education. In: Lerman S (ed) Encyclopedia of mathematics education, vol 10. Springer Science\u2009+\u2009Business Media, Dordrecht, pp 521\u2013525. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-94-007-4978-8"},{"key":"1338_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-4978-8","volume-title":"Encyclopedia of mathematics education","author":"B Jaworski","year":"2014","unstructured":"Jaworski B (2014) Reflective practitioner in mathematics education. In: Lerman S (ed) Encyclopedia of mathematics education, vol 10. Springer Science\u2009+\u2009Business Media, Dordrecht, pp 529\u2013532. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-94-007-4978-8"},{"issue":"4","key":"1338_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2006.11.008","volume":"50","author":"K Hurts","year":"2008","unstructured":"Hurts K (2008) Building cognitive support for the learning of long division skills using progressive schematization: design and empirical validation. Comput Educ 50(4):1141\u20131156. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2006.11.008","journal-title":"Comput Educ"},{"issue":"2","key":"1338_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/s10649-016-9716-5","volume":"94","author":"M Glade","year":"2017","unstructured":"Glade M, Prediger S (2017) Students\u2019 individual schematization pathways-empirical reconstructions for the case of part-of-part determination for fractions. Educ Stud Math 94(2):185\u2013203. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10649-016-9716-5","journal-title":"Educ Stud Math"},{"key":"1338_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ligthart MEU, de Droog SM, Bossema M, Elloumi L, de Haas M, Smakman MHJ, Hindriks KV, Ben Allouch S (2024) Back to school: Sustaining recurring child-robot educational interactions after a long break. In: Proceedings of the ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3610977.3635001","DOI":"10.1145\/3610977.3635001"},{"key":"1338_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-014-0227-1","volume":"6","author":"I Leite","year":"2014","unstructured":"Leite I, Castellano G, Pereira A, Martinho C, Paiva A (2014) Empathic robots for long-term interaction: evaluating social presence, engagement and perceived support in children. Int J Soc Robot 6:329\u2013341. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12369-014-0227-1","journal-title":"Int J Soc Robot"},{"key":"1338_CR50","unstructured":"Cutrona CE, Suhr JA, MacFarlane R (1990) Interpersonal transactions and the psychological sense of support. In: Duck S & Silver RC (eds.) Personal relationships and social support, London, UK pp. 30\u201345"},{"issue":"4","key":"1338_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1080\/03634520701400090","volume":"56","author":"JH Waldeck","year":"2007","unstructured":"Waldeck JH (2007) Answering the question: student perceptions of personalized education and the construct\u2019s relationship to learning outcomes. Commun Educ 56(4):409\u2013432. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/03634520701400090","journal-title":"Commun Educ"},{"key":"1338_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Mattar N, Wachsmuth I (2014) Let\u2019s get personal: assessing the impact of personal information in human-agent conversations. In: Proceedings of the 16th HCI International Conference pp. 450\u2013461. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-07230-2_43","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-07230-2_43"},{"key":"1338_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Leite I, Pereira A, Lehman JF (2017) Persistent memory in repeated child-robot conversations. In: Proceedings of the conference on interaction design and children pp. 238\u2013247. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3078072.3079728","DOI":"10.1145\/3078072.3079728"},{"key":"1338_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kruijff-Korbayov\u00e1 I, Oleari E, Bagherzadhalimi A, Sacchitelli F, Kiefer B, Racioppa S, Pozzi C, Sanna A (2015) Young users\u2019 perception of a social robot displaying familiarity and eliciting disclosure. In: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Social Robotics (ICSR) pp. 380\u2013389. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-25554-5_38","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-25554-5_38"},{"issue":"7\u20138","key":"1338_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2011.04.003","volume":"69","author":"TN Beran","year":"2011","unstructured":"Beran TN, Ramirez-Serrano A, Kuzyk R, Fior M, Nugent S (2011) Understanding how children understand robots: perceived animism in child\u2013robot interaction. Int J Hum Comput Stud 69(7\u20138):539\u2013550. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2011.04.003","journal-title":"Int J Hum Comput Stud"},{"key":"1338_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ros R, Nalin M, Wood R, Baxter P, Looije R, Demiris Y (2011) Child-robot interaction in the wild: advice to the aspiring experimenter. In: Proceedings of the 13th international conference on multimodal interfaces pp. 335\u2013342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2070481.2070545","DOI":"10.1145\/2070481.2070545"},{"issue":"10","key":"1338_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1544","DOI":"10.1080\/03004430.2015.1111879","volume":"186","author":"M Papadopoulou","year":"2016","unstructured":"Papadopoulou M (2016) The \u2018space\u2019 of friendship: young children\u2019s Understandings and expressions of friendship in a reception class. Early Child Dev Care 186(10):1544\u20131558. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/03004430.2015.1111879","journal-title":"Early Child Dev Care"},{"key":"1338_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2021.107135","volume":"129","author":"CL Van Straten","year":"2022","unstructured":"Van Straten CL, Peter J, K\u00fchne R, Barco A (2022) On sharing and caring: investigating the effects of a robot\u2019s self-disclosure and question-asking on children\u2019s robot perceptions and child-robot relationship formation. Comput Hum Behav 129:107135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chb.2021.107135","journal-title":"Comput Hum Behav"},{"issue":"2","key":"1338_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2021.107135","volume":"12","author":"TW Bickmore","year":"2005","unstructured":"Bickmore TW, Picard RW (2005) Establishing and maintaining long-term human-computer relationships. ACM Trans Comput Hum Interact 12(2):293\u2013327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chb.2021.107135","journal-title":"ACM Trans Comput Hum Interact"},{"key":"1338_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Erel H, Oberlender A, Khatib J, Freund N, Sadeh O, Waksberg J, Carsenti E (2024) The power of opening encounters in hri: How initial robotic behavior shapes the interaction that follows. In: Proceedings of the ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3610977.3634996","DOI":"10.1145\/3610977.3634996"},{"key":"1338_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Fischer K, Soto B, Pantofaru C, Takayama L (2014) Initiating interactions in order to get help: Effects of social framing on people\u2019s responses to robots\u2019 requests for assistance. In: The 23rd IEEE international symposium on robot and human interactive communication. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/roman.2014.6926383","DOI":"10.1109\/roman.2014.6926383"},{"issue":"6","key":"1338_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721418793140","volume":"27","author":"R Reber","year":"2018","unstructured":"Reber R, Canning EA, Harackiewicz JM (2018) Personalized education to increase interest. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 27(6):449\u2013454. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0963721418793140","journal-title":"Curr Dir Psychol Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"1338_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0178126","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0178126","volume":"12","author":"P Baxter","year":"2017","unstructured":"Baxter P, Ashurst E, Read R, Kennedy J, Belpaeme T (2017) Robot education peers in a situated primary school study: personalisation promotes child learning. PLoS ONE 12(5):e0178126. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0178126","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"1338_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ligthart MEU, De Droog SM, Bossema M, Elloumi L, Hoogland K, Smakman MHJ, Hindriks KV, Ben Allouch S (2023) Design specifications for a social robot math tutor. In: Proceedings of the ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3568162.3576957","DOI":"10.1145\/3568162.3576957"},{"key":"1338_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Van Ewijk G, Smakman MHJ, Konijn EA (2020) Teachers\u2019 perspectives on social robots in education: an exploratory case study. In: Proceedings of the Interaction Design and Children Conference. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3392063.3394397","DOI":"10.1145\/3392063.3394397"},{"key":"1338_CR66","unstructured":"De Leeuw E (2011) Improving data quality when surveying children and adolescents: cognitive and social development and its role in questionnaire construction and pretesting. In: Report prepared for the annual meeting of the academy of Finland: research programs public health challenges and health and welfare of children and young people pp. 10\u201312"},{"issue":"1","key":"1338_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-021-01202-3","volume":"37","author":"CL Van Straten","year":"2021","unstructured":"Van Straten CL, Peter J, K\u00fchne R, Barco A (2021) The Wizard and I: how transparent teleoperation and self-description (do not) affect children\u2019s robot perceptions and child-robot relationship formation. AI Soc 37(1):383\u2013399. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-021-01202-3","journal-title":"AI Soc"},{"issue":"3","key":"1338_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-009-0024-4","volume":"1","author":"A Weiss","year":"2009","unstructured":"Weiss A, Wurhofer D, Tscheligi M (2009) I love this dog: children\u2019s emotional attachment to the robotic dog AIBO. Int J Soc Robot 1(3):243\u2013248. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12369-009-0024-4","journal-title":"Int J Soc Robot"},{"key":"1338_CR69","unstructured":"De Droog SM, Buijzen M (2014) Presenting validated self-report character involvement scales for 4-to 6-year-olds. In: International Communication Association (ICA) conference"},{"key":"1338_CR70","volume-title":"Handleiding voor de rekenmotivatievragenlijst voor kinderen [manual for the mathematics motivation questionnaire for children]","author":"EJ Prast","year":"2012","unstructured":"Prast EJ, Van de Weijer-Bergsma E, Kroesbergen EH, Van Luit JEH (2012) Handleiding voor de rekenmotivatievragenlijst voor kinderen [manual for the mathematics motivation questionnaire for children]. Universiteit Utrecht, Utrecht"},{"key":"1338_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cedpsych.2018.08.002","volume":"55","author":"EJ Prast","year":"2018","unstructured":"Prast EJ, Van de Weijer-Bergsma E, Mio\u010devi\u0107 M, Kroesbergen EH, Van Luit JEH (2018) Relations between mathematics achievement and motivation in students of diverse achievement levels. Contemp Educ Psychol 55:84\u201396. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cedpsych.2018.08.002","journal-title":"Contemp Educ Psychol"},{"key":"1338_CR72","volume-title":"Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: a regression-based approach","author":"AF Hayes","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hayes AF (2022) Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: a regression-based approach, 3rd edn. The Guilford Press, New York","edition":"3"},{"issue":"1","key":"1338_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-010416-044022","volume":"68","author":"J Metcalfe","year":"2017","unstructured":"Metcalfe J (2017) Learning from errors. Annu Rev Psychol 68(1):465\u2013489. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-psych-010416-044022","journal-title":"Annu Rev Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"1338_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2010.09.003","volume":"15","author":"HL Roediger","year":"2011","unstructured":"Roediger HL, Butler AC (2011) The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends Cogn Sci 15(1):20\u201327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tics.2010.09.003","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"key":"1338_CR75","unstructured":"Cocchella F, Pusceddu G, Belgiovine G, Lastrico L, Rea F, Sciutti A (2022) iCub, we forgive you! Investigating trust in a game scenario with kids. ArXiv Preprint arXiv: 220901694"},{"key":"1338_CR76","unstructured":"Cerani\u0107 HK (2025) It\u2019s to, not too! The impact of robot errors on children\u2019s learning in a learning\u2013by\u2013teaching paradigm (Doctoral dissertation; April\u20132025 committee\u2013approved version). https:\/\/macsphere.mcmaster.ca\/handle\/11375\/31562"},{"key":"1338_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Barco A, De Jong C, Peter J, K\u00fchne R, Van Straten CL (2020) Robot morphology and children\u2019s perception of social robots: An exploratory study. In: Companion of the ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction pp. 125\u2013127. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3371382.3378348","DOI":"10.1145\/3371382.3378348"},{"key":"1338_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100875","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogdev.2020.100875","volume":"54","author":"C Oran\u00e7","year":"2020","unstructured":"Oran\u00e7 C, K\u00fcntay AC (2020) Children\u2019s perception of social robots as a source of information across different domains of knowledge. Cogn Dev 54:100875. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cogdev.2020.100875","journal-title":"Cogn Dev"},{"key":"1338_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Cameron D, Fernando S, Collins EC, Millings A, Szollosy M, Moore R, Sharkey A, Prescott T (2017) You made him be alive: Children\u2019s perceptions of animacy in a humanoid robot. In: Proceedings of Biomimetic and Biohybrid Systems Conference pp. 73\u201385. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-63537-8_7","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-63537-8_7"},{"issue":"2","key":"1338_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3365668","volume":"9","author":"CL Van Straten","year":"2020","unstructured":"Van Straten CL, Peter J, K\u00fchne R, Barco A (2020) Transparency about a robot\u2019s lack of human psychological capacities: effects on child-robot perception and relationship formation. ACM Trans Comput Hum Interact 9(2):1\u201322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3365668","journal-title":"ACM Trans Comput Hum Interact"},{"issue":"8","key":"1338_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1879","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-024-01121-5","volume":"16","author":"I Rudenko","year":"2024","unstructured":"Rudenko I, Rudenko A, Lilienthal AJ, Arras KO, Bruno B (2024) The child factor in child\u2013robot interaction: discovering the impact of developmental stage and individual characteristics. Int J Soc Robot 16(8):1879\u20131900. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12369-024-01121-5","journal-title":"Int J Soc Robot"},{"issue":"3","key":"1338_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.3390\/mti1030014","volume":"1","author":"MI Ahmad","year":"2017","unstructured":"Ahmad MI, Mubin O, Orlando J (2017) A systematic review of adaptivity in human-robot interaction. Multimodal Technol Interact 1(3):14. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mti1030014","journal-title":"Multimodal Technol Interact"},{"issue":"6","key":"1338_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1411","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-020-00722-0","volume":"13","author":"O Barber","year":"2021","unstructured":"Barber O, Somogyi E, McBride AE, Proops L (2021) Children\u2019s evaluations of a therapy dog and biomimetic robot: influences of animistic beliefs and social interaction. Int J Soc Robot 13(6):1411\u20131425. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12369-020-00722-0","journal-title":"Int J Soc Robot"},{"issue":"4","key":"1338_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-021-00835-0","volume":"14","author":"C De Jong","year":"2022","unstructured":"De Jong C, Peter J, K\u00fchne R, Barco A (2022) Children\u2019s intention to adopt social robots: A model of its distal and proximal predictors. Int J Soc Robot 14(4):875\u2013891. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12369-021-00835-0","journal-title":"Int J Soc Robot"},{"key":"1338_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Konijn EA, Preciado Vanegas D, Van Minkelen P (2025) Theory of affective bonding: a framework to explain how people may relate to social robots and artificial others. Commun Theor (in press)","DOI":"10.1093\/ct\/qtaf007"},{"key":"1338_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-2885.2008.00328.x","volume":"18","author":"E Moyer-Gus\u00e9","year":"2008","unstructured":"Moyer-Gus\u00e9 E (2008) Toward a theory of entertainment persuasion: explaining the persuasive effects of entertainment-education messages. Commun Theory 18:407\u2013425. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1468-2885.2008.00328.x","journal-title":"Commun Theory"},{"key":"1338_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1207\/s1532785xmep0201_4","volume":"2","author":"SM Fisch","year":"2000","unstructured":"Fisch SM (2000) A capacity model of children\u2019s comprehension of educational content on television. Media Psychol 2:63\u201391. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1207\/s1532785xmep0201_4","journal-title":"Media Psychol"},{"key":"1338_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Stower R, Ligthart M, Van Straten C, Calvo-Barajas N, Velner E, Beelen T (2021, March) Interdisciplinary research methods for child-robot relationship formation. In: Proceedings of the ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction pp. 700\u2013702. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3434074.3444869","DOI":"10.1145\/3434074.3444869"},{"issue":"8","key":"1338_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1979","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-020-00736-8","volume":"13","author":"R Stower","year":"2021","unstructured":"Stower R, Calvo-Barajas N, Castellano G, Kappas A (2021) A meta-analysis on children\u2019s trust in social robots. Int J Soc Robot 13(8):1979\u20132001. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12369-020-00736-8","journal-title":"Int J Soc Robot"},{"key":"1338_CR90","unstructured":"Weinberger N, Gerling K, Rixen JO, Bruno B (2024) Trust in the field: Reflections on a real-world lab deploying social robots in childcare settings. In: Proceedings of the SCRITA Workshop on Trust, Acceptance and Social Cues in Human-Robot Interaction at IEEE RO-MAN 2024"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Social Robotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s12369-025-01338-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s12369-025-01338-y","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s12369-025-01338-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]],"date-time":"2026-02-09T11:41:13Z","timestamp":1770637273000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s12369-025-01338-y"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["1338"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12369-025-01338-y","relation":{},"ISSN":["1875-4791","1875-4805"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1875-4791","type":"print"},{"value":"1875-4805","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"1 March 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"4 December 2025","order":2,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"5 December 2025","order":3,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"27 January 2026","order":4,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The questionnaire and methodology for this study were approved by the ethical committee of the Amsterdam University of Applied Sciences (Ethics approval number: 2022\u2013054032).","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethical Approval"}},{"value":"Written informed consent was obtained from the parents.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to Participate"}},{"value":"The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing Interests"}}],"article-number":"10"}}