{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T18:18:13Z","timestamp":1782325093419,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,12]],"date-time":"2025-09-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757635200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,12]],"date-time":"2025-09-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757635200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"funder":[{"name":"Learning Engineering Virtual Institute","award":["G-23-2137070"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["G-23-2137070"]}]},{"name":"Jaffe Foundation","award":["AGR00026932"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AGR00026932"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Comput High Educ"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s12528-025-09467-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,12]],"date-time":"2025-09-12T04:20:44Z","timestamp":1757650844000},"page":"1371-1412","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Should educational AI models include gender attribute? explaining the why based on environmental psychology course with gender imbalance"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"37","author":[{"given":"Hai","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1446-889X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wanli","family":"Xing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wangda","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zifeng","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"9467_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdallah, E. E., Alzghoul, J. R., & Alzghool, M. (2020). Age and gender prediction in open domain text. Procedia Computer Science, 170, 563\u2013570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2020.03.126"},{"key":"9467_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andrus, M., & Villeneuve, S. (2022, June). Demographic-reliant algorithmic fairness: Characterizing the risks of demographic data collection in the pursuit of fairness. In Proceedings of the 2022 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (pp. 1709\u20131721).","DOI":"10.1145\/3531146.3533226"},{"issue":"11","key":"9467_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0258788","volume":"16","author":"S Ayouni","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ayouni, S., Hajjej, F., Maddeh, M., & Al-Otaibi, S. (2021). A new ML-based approach to enhance student engagement in online environment. PLoS ONE, 16(11), Article e0258788. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0258788","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"9467_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baker, R. S., Esbenshade, L., Vitale, J., & Karumbaiah, S. (2023). Using demographic data as predictor variables: A questionable choice. Journal of Educational Data Mining, 15(2), 22\u201352.","DOI":"10.35542\/osf.io\/y4wvj"},{"issue":"4","key":"9467_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1052","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-021-00285-9","volume":"32","author":"RS Baker","year":"2022","unstructured":"Baker, R. S., & Hawn, A. (2022). Algorithmic bias in education. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 32(4), 1052\u20131092.","journal-title":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education"},{"issue":"2","key":"9467_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1111\/0023-8333.00119","volume":"50","author":"SC Baker","year":"2000","unstructured":"Baker, S. C., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2000). The role of gender and immersion in communication and second language orientations. Language Learning, 50(2), 311\u2013341.","journal-title":"Language Learning"},{"issue":"S1","key":"9467_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1111\/0023-8333.00224","volume":"53","author":"SC Baker","year":"2003","unstructured":"Baker, S. C., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2003). The role of gender and immersion in communication and second language orientations. Language Learning, 53(S1), 65\u201396.","journal-title":"Language Learning"},{"issue":"4","key":"9467_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.2307\/20439061","volume":"94","author":"RR Banks","year":"2006","unstructured":"Banks, R. R., Eberhardt, J. L., & Ross, L. (2006). Discrimination and implicit bias in a racially unequal society. California Law Review, 94(4), 1169\u20131190.","journal-title":"California Law Review"},{"key":"9467_CR10","unstructured":"Baral, S., Santhanam, A., Botelho, A., Gurung, A., & Heffernan, N. (2023, July). Automated Scoring of Image-based responses to Open-ended mathematics question. In\u00a0The Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Educational Data Mining."},{"issue":"4","key":"9467_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.88.4.354","volume":"88","author":"SL Bem","year":"1981","unstructured":"Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88(4), 354.","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"9467_CR12","unstructured":"Benjamin, R., & Robson, C. (2022). Automating Racial Alibis: Rethinking Race, Technology, and the Law."},{"issue":"6","key":"9467_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.17705\/1jais.00400","volume":"16","author":"GW Bock","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bock, G. W., Ahuja, M. K., Suh, A., & Yap, L. X. (2015). Sustainability of a virtual community: Integrating individual and structural dynamics. Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 16(6), 3.","journal-title":"Journal of the Association for Information Systems"},{"key":"9467_CR14","unstructured":"Bonilla-Silva, E. (2006). Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers."},{"key":"9467_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2012.11.005","volume":"25","author":"J-M Boucheix","year":"2013","unstructured":"Boucheix, J.-M., Lowe, R. K., Putri, D. K., & Groff, J. (2013). Cueing animations: Dynamic signaling aids information extraction and comprehension. Learning and Instruction, 25, 71\u201384.","journal-title":"Learning and Instruction"},{"issue":"1","key":"9467_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1080\/08886504.1997.10782210","volume":"30","author":"TA Brush","year":"1997","unstructured":"Brush, T. A. (1997). The effects of group composition on achievement and time on task for students completing ILS activities in cooperative pairs. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 30(1), 2\u201317.","journal-title":"Journal of Research on Computing in Education"},{"key":"9467_CR17","unstructured":"Coleman, C., Baker, R. S., & Stephenson, S. (2019). A Better Cold-Start for Early Prediction of Student At-Risk Status in New School Districts.\u00a0International Educational Data Mining Society."},{"key":"9467_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corbett-Davies, S., Pierson, E., Feller, A., Goel, S., & Huq, A. (2017). Algorithmic decision making and the cost of fairness. In\u00a0Proceedings of the 23rd acm sigkdd international conference on knowledge discovery and data mining\u00a0(pp. 797\u2013806).","DOI":"10.1145\/3097983.3098095"},{"key":"9467_CR19","unstructured":"Cortez, P., & Silva, A. M. G. (2008). Using data mining to predict secondary school student performance."},{"key":"9467_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deho, O. B., Joksimovic, S., Li, J., Zhan, C., Liu, J., & Liu, L. (2022). Should learning analytics models include sensitive attributes? Explaining the why. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies.","DOI":"10.1109\/TLT.2022.3226474"},{"key":"9467_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deho, O. B., Joksimovic, S., Liu, L., Li, J., Zhan, C., & Liu, J. (2023, July). Assessing the Fairness of Course Success Prediction Models in the Face of (Un) equal Demographic Group Distribution. In Proceedings of the Tenth ACM Conference on Learning@ Scale (pp. 48\u201358).","DOI":"10.1145\/3573051.3593381"},{"issue":"1","key":"9467_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40561-018-0080-z","volume":"6","author":"M Dewan","year":"2019","unstructured":"Dewan, M., Murshed, M., & Lin, F. (2019). Engagement detection in online learning: A review. Smart Learning Environments, 6(1), 1\u201320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40561-018-0080-z","journal-title":"Smart Learning Environments"},{"issue":"5","key":"9467_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican1118-68","volume":"319","author":"V Eubanks","year":"2018","unstructured":"Eubanks, V. (2018). Automating bias. Scientific American, 319(5), 68\u201371.","journal-title":"Scientific American"},{"key":"9467_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ezen-Can, A., Boyer, K. E., Kellogg, S., & Booth, S. (2015, March). Unsupervised modeling for understanding MOOC discussion forums: a learning analytics approach. In Proceedings of the fifth international conference on learning analytics and knowledge (pp. 146\u2013150).","DOI":"10.1145\/2723576.2723589"},{"issue":"1","key":"9467_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.3102\/0091732X20903304","volume":"44","author":"C Fischer","year":"2020","unstructured":"Fischer, C., Pardos, Z. A., Baker, R. S., Williams, J. J., Smyth, P., Yu, R., Slater, S., Baker, R., & Warschauer, M. (2020). Mining big data in education: Affordances and challenges. Review of Research in Education, 44(1), 130\u2013160.","journal-title":"Review of Research in Education"},{"issue":"5","key":"9467_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1080\/13691180701658095","volume":"10","author":"M Foth","year":"2007","unstructured":"Foth, M., & Hearn, G. (2007). Networked individualism of urban residents: Discovering the communicative ecology in inner-city apartment buildings. Information, Communication & Society, 10(5), 749\u2013772.","journal-title":"Information, Communication & Society"},{"issue":"1","key":"9467_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.3102\/00346543074001059","volume":"74","author":"JA Fredricks","year":"2004","unstructured":"Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59\u2013109.","journal-title":"Review of Educational Research"},{"issue":"3","key":"9467_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-009-9107-x","volume":"21","author":"SM Fulmer","year":"2009","unstructured":"Fulmer, S. M., & Frijters, J. C. (2009). A review of self-report and alternative approaches in the measurement of student motivation. Educational Psychology Review, 21(3), 219\u2013246.","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"9467_CR101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00e1ndara, D., Anahideh, H., Ison, M. P., & Picchiarini, L. (2024). Inside the black box: Detecting and mitigating algorithmic bias across racialized groups in college student-success prediction. AERA Open, 10, 23328584241258741.","DOI":"10.1177\/23328584241258741"},{"key":"9467_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gardner, J., Brooks, C., & Baker, R. (2019). Evaluating the Fairness of Predictive Student Models Through Slicing Analysis. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Learning Analytics & Knowledge, 225\u2013234. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3303772.3303791","DOI":"10.1145\/3303772.3303791"},{"issue":"1","key":"9467_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1080\/00461520.2014.989230","volume":"50","author":"BA Greene","year":"2015","unstructured":"Greene, B. A. (2015). Measuring cognitive engagement with self-report scales: Reflections from over 20 years of research. Educational Psychologist, 50(1), 14\u201330.","journal-title":"Educational Psychologist"},{"key":"9467_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1007\/s10956-007-9071-5","volume":"16","author":"LA Guertin","year":"2007","unstructured":"Guertin, L. A., Zappe, S. E., & Kim, H. (2007). Just-in-time teaching exercises to engage students in an introductory-level dinosaur course. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 16, 507\u2013514.","journal-title":"Journal of Science Education and Technology"},{"issue":"5","key":"9467_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2729.2006.00184.x","volume":"22","author":"J Guiller","year":"2006","unstructured":"Guiller, J., & Durndell, A. (2006). \u2018I totally agree with you\u2019: Gender interactions in educational online discussion groups. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 22(5), 368\u2013381.","journal-title":"Journal of Computer Assisted Learning"},{"key":"9467_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-023-00379-6","author":"A Gupta","year":"2023","unstructured":"Gupta, A., Carpenter, D., Min, W., Rowe, J., Azevedo, R., & Lester, J. (2023). Detecting and mitigating encoded bias in deep learning-based stealth assessment models for reflection-enriched game-based learning environments. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40593-023-00379-6","journal-title":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education"},{"issue":"5","key":"9467_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4018\/IJWLTT.297622","volume":"17","author":"T Hamim","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hamim, T., Benabbou, F., & Sael, N. (2022). Student profile modeling using boosting algorithms. International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies (IJWLTT), 17(5), 1\u201313.","journal-title":"International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies (IJWLTT)"},{"key":"9467_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2015.09.005","volume":"90","author":"CR Henrie","year":"2015","unstructured":"Henrie, C. R., Halverson, L. R., & Graham, C. R. (2015a). Measuring student engagement in technology-mediated learning: A review. Computers & Education, 90, 36\u201353. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2015.09.005","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"key":"9467_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2015.09.005","volume":"90","author":"CR Henrie","year":"2015","unstructured":"Henrie, C. R., Halverson, L. R., & Graham, C. R. (2015b). Measuring student engagement in technology-mediated learning: A review. Computers & Education, 90, 36\u201353.","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"key":"9467_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holstein, K., & Doroudi, S. (2022). Equity and artificial intelligence in education. In\u00a0The ethics of artificial intelligence in education\u00a0(pp. 151\u2013173). Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429329067-9"},{"key":"9467_CR38","unstructured":"Honneth, A. (1996). The struggle for recognition: The moral grammar of social conflicts. The MIT Press."},{"key":"9467_CR39","unstructured":"Huang, X., Khetan, A., Cvitkovic, M., & Karnin, Z. (2020). Tabtransformer: Tabular data modeling using contextual embeddings. arXiv preprint arXiv:2012.06678."},{"key":"9467_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Introne, J., Semaan, B., & Goggins, S. (2016, May). A sociotechnical mechanism for online support provision. In Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 3559\u20133571).","DOI":"10.1145\/2858036.2858582"},{"key":"9467_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03340893","volume":"8","author":"SR Jimerson","year":"2003","unstructured":"Jimerson, S. R., Campos, E., & Greif, J. L. (2003). Toward an understanding of definitions and measures of school engagement and related terms. The California School Psychologist, 8, 7\u201327.","journal-title":"The California School Psychologist"},{"issue":"4","key":"9467_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1044","DOI":"10.1108\/ITP-03-2018-0143","volume":"32","author":"XL Jin","year":"2019","unstructured":"Jin, X. L., Zhou, Z., & Yu, X. (2019). Predicting users\u2019 willingness to diffuse healthcare knowledge in social media: A communicative ecology perspective? Information Technology & People, 32(4), 1044\u20131064.","journal-title":"Information Technology & People"},{"key":"9467_CR43","unstructured":"Kassin, S.; Fein, S.; Markus, H.R. Social Psychology, 7th ed.; Houghton Mifflin Company: Boston, MA, USA, 2008."},{"issue":"5","key":"9467_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1849","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2011.04.007","volume":"27","author":"R Kay","year":"2011","unstructured":"Kay, R. (2011). Evaluating learning, design, and engagement in web-based learning tools (WBLTs): The WBLT evaluation scale. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(5), 1849\u20131856.","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"key":"9467_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ke, G., Xu, Z., Zhang, J., Bian, J., & Liu, T. Y. (2019, July). DeepGBM: A deep learning framework distilled by GBDT for online prediction tasks. In Proceedings of the 25th ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery & Data Mining (pp. 384\u2013394).","DOI":"10.1145\/3292500.3330858"},{"issue":"1","key":"9467_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1007\/s12528-016-9126-9","volume":"29","author":"M Khalil","year":"2017","unstructured":"Khalil, M., & Ebner, M. (2017). Clustering patterns of engagement in massive open online courses (MOOCs): The use of learning analytics to reveal student categories. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 29(1), 114\u2013132. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12528-016-9126-9","journal-title":"Journal of Computing in Higher Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"9467_CR47","first-page":"190","volume":"5","author":"JS Kinnebrew","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kinnebrew, J. S., Loretz, K. M., & Biswas, G. (2013). A contextualized, differential sequence mining method to derive students\u2019 learning behavior patterns. Journal of Educational Data Mining, 5(1), 190\u2013219.","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Data Mining"},{"key":"9467_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kleinberg, J., Ludwig, J., Mullainathan, S., & Rambachan, A. (2018, May). Algorithmic fairness. In\u00a0Aea papers and proceedings\u00a0(Vol. 108, pp. 22\u201327). 2014 Broadway, Suite 305, Nashville, TN 37203: American Economic Association.","DOI":"10.1257\/pandp.20181018"},{"issue":"1","key":"9467_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1037\/amp0000972","volume":"78","author":"RN Landers","year":"2023","unstructured":"Landers, R. N., & Behrend, T. S. (2023). Auditing the AI auditors: A framework for evaluating fairness and bias in high stakes AI predictive models. American Psychologist, 78(1), 36.","journal-title":"American Psychologist"},{"issue":"1","key":"9467_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1177\/0361684310392728","volume":"35","author":"C Leaper","year":"2011","unstructured":"Leaper, C., & Robnett, R. D. (2011). Women are more likely than men to use tentative language, aren\u2019t they? A meta-analysis testing for gender differences and moderators. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(1), 129\u2013142.","journal-title":"Psychology of Women Quarterly"},{"key":"9467_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, C., Xing, W., & Leite, W. (2022). Using fair AI to predict students\u2019 math learning outcomes in an online platform. Interactive Learning Environments, 1\u201320.","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2022.2115076"},{"key":"9467_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-012-9857-5","volume":"42","author":"Y Li","year":"2013","unstructured":"Li, Y., & Lerner, R. M. (2013). Interrelations of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive school engagement in high school students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 20\u201332.","journal-title":"Journal of Youth and Adolescence"},{"key":"9467_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.948612","volume":"13","author":"H Liu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Liu, H., Chen, X., & Liu, X. (2022). Factors influencing secondary school students\u2019 reading literacy: An analysis based on XGBoost and SHAP methods. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 948612.","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"key":"9467_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lohia, P. K., Ramamurthy, K. N., Bhide, M., Saha, D., Varshney, K. R., & Puri, R. (2019, May). Bias mitigation post-processing for individual and group fairness. In\u00a0Icassp 2019\u20132019 ieee international conference on acoustics, speech and signal processing (icassp)\u00a0(pp. 2847\u20132851). IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICASSP.2019.8682620"},{"key":"9467_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lyu, B., Li, C., Li, H., & Xing, W. (2024, July). Roles of joining time, technology use, and social interaction in sustaining student participation in an online mathematics discussion board. In\u00a0Proceedings of the Eleventh ACM Conference on Learning@ Scale\u00a0(pp. 398\u2013402).","DOI":"10.1145\/3657604.3664672"},{"key":"9467_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lyu, B., Li, C., Li, H., Zhu, W., & Xing, W. (2024). Explaining technical, social, and discursive participation in online mathematical discussions.\u00a0Distance Education, 1\u201324.","DOI":"10.1080\/01587919.2024.2399151"},{"issue":"S1","key":"9467_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9922.00226","volume":"53","author":"PD MacIntyre","year":"2003","unstructured":"MacIntyre, P. D., Baker, S. C., Cl\u00e9ment, R., & Donovan, L. A. (2003). Sex and age effects on willingness to communicate, anxiety, perceived competence, and L2 motivation among junior high school French immersion students. Language Learning, 53(S1), 137\u2013166.","journal-title":"Language Learning"},{"key":"9467_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madaio, M., Blodgett, S. L., Mayfield, E., & Dixon-Rom\u00e1n, E. (2022). Beyond \"fairness\": Structural (in) justice lenses on ai for education. In The ethics of artificial intelligence in education (pp. 203\u2013239). Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429329067-11"},{"issue":"6","key":"9467_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691620904961","volume":"16","author":"AE Martin","year":"2021","unstructured":"Martin, A. E., & Slepian, M. L. (2021). The primacy of gender: Gendered cognition underlies the big two dimensions of social cognition. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(6), 1143\u20131158.","journal-title":"Perspectives on Psychological Science"},{"key":"9467_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez-Navarro, \u00c1., Verd\u00fa, E., & Moreno-Ger, P. (2021). Mining Pre-Grade Academic and Demographic Data to Predict University Dropout.\u00a0Radical Solutions for Digital Transformation in Latin American Universities: Artificial Intelligence and Technology 4.0 in Higher Education, 197\u2013215.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-16-3941-8_11"},{"issue":"2","key":"9467_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.3402\/rlt.v9i2.12024","volume":"9","author":"M McSporran","year":"2001","unstructured":"McSporran, M., & Young, S. (2001). Does gender matter in online learning? ALT-J, 9(2), 3\u201315.","journal-title":"ALT-J"},{"issue":"6","key":"9467_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3457607","volume":"54","author":"N Mehrabi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Mehrabi, N., Morstatter, F., Saxena, N., Lerman, K., & Galstyan, A. (2021). A survey on bias and fairness in machine learning. ACM Computing Surveys, 54(6), 1\u201335.","journal-title":"ACM Computing Surveys"},{"key":"9467_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4236\/ijis.2012.224019","author":"Z Miller","year":"2012","unstructured":"Miller, Z., Dickinson, B., & Hu, W. (2012). Gender prediction on twitter using stream algorithms with n-gram character features. International Journal of Intelligence Science. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4236\/ijis.2012.224019","journal-title":"International Journal of Intelligence Science"},{"issue":"4","key":"9467_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1080\/10528008.2021.1936561","volume":"31","author":"C Mitchell","year":"2021","unstructured":"Mitchell, C., Cours Anderson, K., Laverie, D., & Hass, A. (2021). Distance be damned: The importance of social presence in a pandemic constrained environment. Marketing Education Review, 31(4), 294\u2013310.","journal-title":"Marketing Education Review"},{"key":"9467_CR65","unstructured":"Motz, B., Busey, T., Rickert, M., & Landy, D. (2018). Finding Topics in Enrollment Data. International Educational Data Mining Society."},{"issue":"13","key":"9467_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/app11135800","volume":"11","author":"G Nalli","year":"2021","unstructured":"Nalli, G., Amendola, D., Perali, A., & Mostarda, L. (2021). Comparative analysis of clustering algorithms and moodle plugin for creation of student heterogeneous groups in online university courses. Applied Sciences, 11(13), Article 5800.","journal-title":"Applied Sciences"},{"issue":"9","key":"9467_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.7753\/IJCATR0409.1009","volume":"4","author":"TM Ogwoka","year":"2015","unstructured":"Ogwoka, T. M., Cheruiyot, W., & Okeyo, G. (2015). A model for predicting students\u2019 academic performance using a hybrid of K-means and decision tree algorithms. International Journal of Computer Applications Technology and Research, 4(9), 693\u2013697.","journal-title":"International Journal of Computer Applications Technology and Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"9467_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.12592","volume":"50","author":"A Pardo","year":"2019","unstructured":"Pardo, A., Jovanovic, J., Dawson, S., Ga\u0161evi\u0107, D., & Mirriahi, N. (2019a). Using learning analytics to scale the provision of personalised feedback. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(1), 128\u2013138.","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Technology"},{"issue":"1","key":"9467_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.12592","volume":"50","author":"A Pardo","year":"2019","unstructured":"Pardo, A., Jovanovic, J., Dawson, S., Ga\u0161evi\u0107, D., & Mirriahi, N. (2019b). Using learning analytics to scale the provision of personalised feedback. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(1), 128\u2013138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/bjet.12592","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Technology"},{"key":"9467_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Pesare, E., Roselli, T., & Rossano, V. (2017). Engagement in Social Learning: Detecting Engagement in Online Communities of Practice. In J. I. Kantola, T. Barath, S. Nazir, & T. Andre (Eds.), Advances in Human Factors, Business Management, Training and Education (Vol. 498, pp. 151\u2013158). Springer International Publishing. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-42070-7_15","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-42070-7_15"},{"issue":"3","key":"9467_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3494672","volume":"55","author":"D Pessach","year":"2022","unstructured":"Pessach, D., & Shmueli, E. (2022). A review on fairness in machine learning. ACM Computing Surveys, 55(3), 1\u201344.","journal-title":"ACM Computing Surveys"},{"issue":"3","key":"9467_CR72","first-page":"311","volume":"10","author":"L Peters","year":"2011","unstructured":"Peters, L., Shmerling, S., Karren, R., Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). (2011). Constructivist pedagogy in asynchronous online education: Examining proactive behavior and the impact on student engagement levels. International Journal on E-Learning, 10(3), 311\u2013330.","journal-title":"International Journal on E-Learning"},{"key":"9467_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raji, I. D., & Buolamwini, J. (2019). Actionable auditing: Investigating the impact of publicly naming biased performance results of commercial ai products. In\u00a0Proceedings of the 2019 AAAI\/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society\u00a0(pp. 429\u2013435).","DOI":"10.1145\/3306618.3314244"},{"key":"9467_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Riazy, S., Simbeck, K., & Schreck, V. (2020). Fairness in Learning Analytics: Student At-risk Prediction in Virtual Learning Environments: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Computer Supported Education, 15\u201325. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5220\/0009324100150025","DOI":"10.5220\/0009324100150025"},{"key":"9467_CR75","unstructured":"Rivera-Bergollo, R., Baral, S., Botelho, A., & Heffernan, N. (2022, July). Leveraging auxiliary data from similar problems to improve automatic open response scoring. In Conference for Educational Data Mining."},{"issue":"17","key":"9467_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/app14177782","volume":"14","author":"S Shahriar","year":"2024","unstructured":"Shahriar, S., Lund, B. D., Mannuru, N. R., Arshad, M. A., Hayawi, K., Bevara, R. V. K., Mannuru, A., & Batool, L. (2024). Putting GPT-4o to the sword: A comprehensive evaluation of language, vision, speech, and multimodal proficiency. Applied Sciences, 14(17), Article 7782.","journal-title":"Applied Sciences"},{"key":"9467_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2015.05.015","volume":"51","author":"R Symeonides","year":"2015","unstructured":"Symeonides, R., & Childs, C. (2015). The personal experience of online learning: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Computers in Human Behavior, 51, 539\u2013545.","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"key":"9467_CR78","volume-title":"Evolutionary psychology: Conceptual foundations. Evolutionary psychology handbook","author":"J Tooby","year":"2005","unstructured":"Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (2005). Evolutionary psychology: Conceptual foundations. Evolutionary psychology handbook. Wiley."},{"issue":"CSCW2","key":"9467_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3555546","volume":"6","author":"T Van Nuenen","year":"2022","unstructured":"Van Nuenen, T., Such, J., & Cote, M. (2022). Intersectional experiences of unfair treatment caused by automated computational systems. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 6(CSCW2), 1\u201330.","journal-title":"Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction"},{"issue":"2","key":"9467_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2053951717743530","volume":"4","author":"M Veale","year":"2017","unstructured":"Veale, M., & Binns, R. (2017). Fairer machine learning in the real world: Mitigating discrimination without collecting sensitive data. Big Data & Society, 4(2), Article 2053951717743530.","journal-title":"Big Data & Society"},{"issue":"2","key":"9467_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-022-00548-w","volume":"35","author":"R Waelen","year":"2022","unstructured":"Waelen, R., & Wieczorek, M. (2022). The struggle for AI\u2019s recognition: Understanding the normative implications of gender bias in AI with Honneth\u2019s theory of recognition. Philosophy & Technology, 35(2), Article 53.","journal-title":"Philosophy & Technology"},{"issue":"1","key":"9467_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-7795.2011.00753.x","volume":"22","author":"MT Wang","year":"2012","unstructured":"Wang, M. T., & Eccles, J. S. (2012). Adolescent behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement trajectories in school and their differential relations to educational success. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(1), 31\u201339.","journal-title":"Journal of Research on Adolescence"},{"issue":"4","key":"9467_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsp.2011.04.001","volume":"49","author":"MT Wang","year":"2011","unstructured":"Wang, M. T., Willett, J. B., & Eccles, J. S. (2011). The assessment of school engagement: Examining dimensionality and measurement invariance by gender and race\/ethnicity. Journal of School Psychology, 49(4), 465\u2013480.","journal-title":"Journal of School Psychology"},{"key":"9467_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, C., Chang, L., & Liu, T. (2022, May). Predicting student performance in online learning using a highly efficient gradient boosting decision tree. In International Conference on Intelligent Information Processing (pp. 508\u2013521). Cham: Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-03948-5_41"},{"key":"9467_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Warr, M., Oster, N. J., & Isaac, R. (2024). Implicit bias in large language models: Experimental proof and implications for education. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 1\u201324.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4625078"},{"key":"9467_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2025","DOI":"10.1016\/S1574-0005(02)03016-3","volume":"3","author":"E Winter","year":"2002","unstructured":"Winter, E. (2002). The shapley value. Handbook of Game Theory with Economic Applications, 3, 2025\u20132054.","journal-title":"Handbook of Game Theory with Economic Applications"},{"key":"9467_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2012). Biosocial construction of sex differences and similarities in behavior. In Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 46, pp. 55\u2013123). Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-394281-4.00002-7"},{"issue":"3","key":"9467_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1007\/s12528-022-09343-0","volume":"35","author":"W Xing","year":"2023","unstructured":"Xing, W., Zhu, G., Arslan, O., Shim, J., & Popov, V. (2023). Using learning analytics to explore the multifaceted engagement in collaborative learning. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 35(3), 633\u2013662. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12528-022-09343-0","journal-title":"Journal of Computing in Higher Education"},{"key":"9467_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-13038-7","author":"W Xing","year":"2024","unstructured":"Xing, W., Li, H., Kim, T., Zhu, W., & Song, Y. (2024). Investigating the behaviors of core and periphery students in an asynchronous online discussion community using network analysis and topic modeling. Education and Information Technologies. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10639-024-13038-7","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"key":"9467_CR90","unstructured":"Yu, R., Li, Q., Fischer, C., Doroudi, S., & Xu, D. (2020). Towards Accurate and Fair Prediction of College Success: Evaluating Different Sources of Student Data. International educational data mining society."},{"key":"9467_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, R., Lee, H., & Kizilcec, R. F. (2021, June). Should college dropout prediction models include protected attributes?. In\u00a0Proceedings of the eighth ACM conference on learning@ scale\u00a0(pp. 91\u2013100).","DOI":"10.1145\/3430895.3460139"},{"key":"9467_CR92","unstructured":"Zafar, M. B., Valera, I., Rogriguez, M. G., & Gummadi, K. P. (2017, April). Fairness constraints: Mechanisms for fair classification. In\u00a0Artificial intelligence and statistics\u00a0(pp. 962\u2013970). PMLR."},{"key":"9467_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, B., Essl, G., & Mower Provost, E. (2016, October). Automatic recognition of self-reported and perceived emotion: Does joint modeling help?. In Proceedings of the 18th ACM International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (pp. 217\u2013224).","DOI":"10.1145\/2993148.2993173"},{"key":"9467_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, G., Liu, Y., Zhang, W., & Wang, Y. (2018, January). TFIDF based feature words extraction and topic modeling for short text. In Proceedings of the 2018 2nd international conference on management engineering, software engineering and service sciences (pp. 188\u2013191).","DOI":"10.1145\/3180374.3181354"},{"key":"9467_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1007\/s11251-006-0004-0","volume":"34","author":"E Zhu","year":"2006","unstructured":"Zhu, E. (2006). Interaction and cognitive engagement: An analysis of four asynchronous online discussions. Instructional Science, 34, 451\u2013480.","journal-title":"Instructional Science"},{"key":"9467_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2023.2255229","author":"W Zhu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zhu, W., & Hua, Y. (2023). Enhancing students\u2019 learning experience using social networking applications: Evidence from a random experiment. Interactive Learning Environments. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10494820.2023.2255229","journal-title":"Interactive Learning Environments"},{"key":"9467_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2024.105026","author":"W Zhu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhu, W., Zhu, G., & Hua, Y. (2024). Enhancing undergraduates\u2019 engagement in a learning community by including their voices in the technological and instructional design. Computers & Education. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2024.105026","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"key":"9467_CR98","unstructured":"Zhu, D., Chen, J., Shen, X., Li, X., & Elhoseiny, M. (2023). Minigpt-4: Enhancing vision-language understanding with advanced large language models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2304.10592."},{"key":"9467_CR99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, W., Xing, W., Lyu, B., Li, C., Zhang, F., & Li, H. (2025, March). Bridging the gender gap: The role of AI-powered math story creation in learning outcomes. In\u00a0Proceedings of the 15th International Learning Analytics and Knowledge Conference\u00a0(pp. 918\u2013923).","DOI":"10.1145\/3706468.3706539"}],"container-title":["Journal of Computing in Higher Education"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s12528-025-09467-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s12528-025-09467-z\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s12528-025-09467-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,18]],"date-time":"2025-12-18T06:01:46Z","timestamp":1766037706000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s12528-025-09467-z"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,12]]},"references-count":99,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["9467"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12528-025-09467-z","relation":{},"ISSN":["1042-1726","1867-1233"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1042-1726","type":"print"},{"value":"1867-1233","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,12]]},"assertion":[{"value":"13 May 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"20 August 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"12 September 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"During the preparation of this work, the authors used GPT-4 to improve grammar, sentence structure, and overall readability. After using this tool, the authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the publication.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"AI-assisted technologies in the writing process"}}]}}