{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,15]],"date-time":"2025-03-15T16:48:46Z","timestamp":1742057326808,"version":"3.38.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,6]],"date-time":"2025-01-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736121600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,6]],"date-time":"2025-01-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736121600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int. J. ITS Res."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>This study examines how buffer time impacts the behaviors of 20 young drivers in terms of takeover duration and quality, visual attention and cognitive effort, and emotional states preceding, during, and subsequent to take over requests (TORs) upon system failure in level 3 autonomous vehicles occurring just before intersections. Two groups of buffer times of 8 and 4\u00a0s were compared to investigate the impacts of buffer times on driving behavior, eye gaze patterns, and EEG data related to emotional states. Three separate MANOVA tests were conducted to analyze how buffer time impacted these constructs. The individual MANOVA was used for each construct, which included various dependent variables, and included two independent variables (8\u00a0s and 4\u00a0s groups, referred to as 8SG and 4SG respectively) and multiple dependent variables. The results showed that buffer times do not affect drivers\u2019 emotional states and the duration and quality of takeovers. On the other hand, this approach has a statistically significant effect on drivers\u2019 attention given to traffic signals. Drivers\u2019 emotional states (excitement, engagement, stress, relaxation, interest, and focus) are not influenced by buffer time upon system failure. Additionally, when drivers are provided with earlier warnings, they pay further attention to the traffic signal. Finally, drivers take control of their vehicles faster with an earlier buffer time than with a later one.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s13177-024-00457-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,6]],"date-time":"2025-01-06T09:06:43Z","timestamp":1736154403000},"page":"420-431","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Impact of Buffer Time on Driving Behavior in Level-3 Autonomous Vehicles"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2042-847X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdu","family":"Arslanyilmaz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Todd","family":"Jones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Nicholas A.","family":"Labrie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Durmus V.","family":"Doner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"457_CR1","unstructured":"Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation Systems for On-Road Motor Vehicles, SAE International & ISO, USA, J3016: Accessed: Apr. 23, 2024. [Online]. Available: (2021). https:\/\/www.sae.org\/standards\/content\/j3016_202104\/"},{"key":"457_CR2","unstructured":"Crosby, M.E., Stelovsky, J.: Subject differences in the reading of computer algorithms. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction on Designing and Using Human-Computer Interfaces and Knowledge Based Systems (2nd ed.), 137\u2013144, (Sept. 1989)."},{"key":"457_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Arslanyilmaz, A., Sullins, J.: Multi-player online simulated driving game to improve hazard perception. Transp. Res. Part. F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 61, 188\u2013200 (Feb. 2019). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.trf.2018.02.015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2018.02.015"},{"key":"457_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2016.11.001","volume":"25","author":"MK Eckstein","year":"2017","unstructured":"Eckstein, M.K., Guerra-Carrillo, B., Miller Singley, A.T., Bunge, S.A.: Beyond eye gaze: What else can eyetracking reveal about cognition and cognitive development? Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 25, 69\u201391 (2017). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.dcn.2016.11.001","journal-title":"Dev. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"457_CR5","volume-title":"A* Search Algorithm","author":"NJ Nilsson","year":"1968","unstructured":"Nilsson, N.J., Hart, P., Raphael, B.: A* Search Algorithm. Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, California (1968)"},{"key":"457_CR6","unstructured":"Arslanyilmaz, A., Matouq, S.A., Doner, D.V.: Driver Readiness in Autonomous Vehicle Take-Overs, Int. J. Transp. Veh. Eng. 14(8): 558\u2013563, Jul. (2020)"},{"key":"457_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Eckstein, M.K., Guerra-Carrillo, B., Miller Singley, A.T., Bunge, S.A.: Beyond eye gaze: What else can eyetracking reveal about cognition and cognitive development? Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 25, 69\u201391 (Jun. 2017). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.dcn.2016.11.001","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2016.11.001"},{"key":"457_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Issa, N.M., et al.: The link between texting and motor vehicle collision frequency in the orthopaedic trauma population. J. Inj Violence Res. 5(2), 40\u201350 (Jul. 2013). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5249\/jivr.v5i2.330","DOI":"10.5249\/jivr.v5i2.330"},{"key":"457_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lemonnier, S., Br\u00e9mond, R., Baccino, T.: Gaze behavior when approaching an intersection: Dwell time distribution and comparison with a quantitative prediction, Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 35, 60\u201374, Nov. (2015). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.trf.2015.10.015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2015.10.015"},{"key":"457_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Han, C., Sun, X., Yang, Y., Che, Y., Qin, Y.: Brain Complex Network Characteristic Analysis of Fatigue during simulated driving based on Electroencephalogram signals. Entropy. 21(4), 353 (Apr. 2019). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/e21040353","DOI":"10.3390\/e21040353"},{"key":"457_CR11","unstructured":"NHTSA: Driving Distracted, Stats and Facts, Driving and Texting. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (2010)"},{"key":"457_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Boksem, M.A.S., Meijman, T.F., Lorist, M.M.: Effects of mental fatigue on attention: An ERP study, Cogn. Brain Res. 25(1), 107\u2013116, Sep. (2005). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cogbrainres.2005.04.011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogbrainres.2005.04.011"},{"key":"457_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hasse, C., Grasshoff, D., Bruder, C.: How to measure monitoring performance of pilots and air traffic controllers, in Proceedings of the Symposium on Eye Tracking Research and Applications, Santa Barbara California: ACM, Mar. 409\u2013412. (2012). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2168556.2168649","DOI":"10.1145\/2168556.2168649"},{"key":"457_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Cook, J.L., Jones, R.M.: Texting and Accessing the Web While Driving: Traffic Citations and Crashes Among Young Adult Drivers, Traffic Inj. Prev. 12(6), 545\u2013549, Dec. (2011). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/15389588.2011.620999","DOI":"10.1080\/15389588.2011.620999"},{"key":"457_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Harrison, M.A.: College students\u2019 prevalence and perceptions of text messaging while driving, Accid. Anal. Prev. 43(4), 1516\u20131520, Jul. (2011). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.aap.2011.03.003","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2011.03.003"},{"key":"457_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lu, Z., Coster, X., de Winter, J.: How much time do drivers need to obtain situation awareness? A laboratory-based study of automated driving. Appl. Ergon. 60, 293\u2013304 (Apr. 2017). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.apergo.2016.12.003","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2016.12.003"},{"key":"457_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Vlakveld, W., van Nes, N., de Bruin, J., Vissers, L., van der Kroft, M.: Situation awareness increases when drivers have more time to take over the wheel in a Level 3 automated car: A simulator study, Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav.  58, 917\u2013929, Oct. (2018). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.trf.2018.07.025","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2018.07.025"},{"key":"457_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gold, C., K\u00f6rber, M., Lechner, D., Bengler, K.: Taking Over Control From Highly Automated Vehicles in Complex Traffic Situations: The Role of Traffic Density, Hum. Factors J. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. 58(4), 642\u2013652, Jun. (2016). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0018720816634226","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720816634226"},{"key":"457_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zeeb, K., Buchner, A., Schrauf, M.: What determines the take-over time? An integrated model approach of driver take-over after automated driving. Accid. Anal. Prev. 78, 212\u2013221 (May 2015). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.aap.2015.02.023","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2015.02.023"},{"key":"457_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Radlmayr, J., Gold, C., Lorenz, L., Farid, M., Bengler, K.: How traffic situations and non-driving related tasks affect the take-over quality in highly automated driving, in Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, in 1, 58, 2063\u20132067. (2014). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1541931214581434","DOI":"10.1177\/1541931214581434"},{"key":"457_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gold, C., Damb\u00f6ck, D., Lorenz, L., Bengler, K.: \u2018Take over!\u2019 How long does it take to get the driver back into the loop? in Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, in 1, 57, pp. 1938\u20131942. (2013). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1541931213571433","DOI":"10.1177\/1541931213571433"},{"key":"457_CR22","unstructured":"Sharma, K., Jermann, P., Dillenbourg, P.: With-me-ness: A gaze-measure for students attention in, presented at the the International Conference on Learning Sciences, Boulder, Colorado, USA, Jun. (2014)"},{"key":"457_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kim, T.-Y., Ko, H., Kim, S.-H.: Data Analysis for Emotion Classification Based on Bio-Information in Self-Driving Vehicles, J. Adv. Transp. 1\u201311, Jan. 2020, (2020). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2020\/8167295","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8167295"},{"key":"457_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boril, H., Sadjadi, S.O., Kleinschmidt, T., Hansen, J.H.L.: Analysis and Detection of Cognitive Load and Frustration in Drivers\u2019 Speech. Center for Robust Speech Systems (CRSS), Eric Jonsson School of Engineering, University of Texas at Dallas, Texas, USA & Speech and Audio Research Laboratory, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia. Accessed: Apr. 24, 2024. [Online]. Available: https:\/\/crss.utdallas.edu\/Publications\/pdf\/Boril2010a.pdf","DOI":"10.21437\/Interspeech.2010-208"},{"key":"457_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Mart\u00ed-Belda, A., Pastor, J.C., Montoro, L., Bos\u00f3, P., Roca, J.: Persistent Traffic Offenders: Alcohol Consumption and Personality as Predictors of Driving Disqualification, Eur. J. Psychol. Appl. Leg. Context, 11(2), 81\u201392, Jul. (2019). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5093\/ejpalc2019a3","DOI":"10.5093\/ejpalc2019a3"},{"key":"457_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"SangWoo, H., Park, H.: Drowsiness Driving Prevention System using Bone Conduction Device, KSII Trans. Internet Inf. Syst. 13(9), 4518\u20134540, Sep. (2019). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3837\/tiis.2019.09.011","DOI":"10.3837\/tiis.2019.09.011"},{"key":"457_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Deffenbacher, J.L., Lynch, R.S., Oetting, E.R., Swaim, R.C.: The Driving Anger Expression Inventory: a measure of how people express their anger on the road, Behav. Res. Ther. 40(6), 717\u2013737, Jun. (2002). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0005-7967(01)00063-8","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(01)00063-8"},{"key":"457_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Portouli, E., Bekiaris, E., Papakostopoulos, V., Maglaveras, N.: On-road experiment for collecting driving behavioural data of sleepy drivers, Somnologie - Schlafforschung Schlafmed. 11(4), 259\u2013267, Dec. (2007). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11818-007-0319-3","DOI":"10.1007\/s11818-007-0319-3"},{"key":"457_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lin, C.-T., Ko, L.-W., Shen, T.-K.: Computational intelligent brain computer interaction and its applications on driving cognition, IEEE Comput. Intell. Mag. 4(4), 32\u201346, Nov. (2009). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/MCI.2009.934559","DOI":"10.1109\/MCI.2009.934559"},{"key":"457_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Treat, J.R., et al.: Tri-level study of the causes of traffic accidents: final report. Executive summary, Institute for Reserch in Public Safety, Bloomington, IL, DOT HS 805 099, May 1979","DOI":"10.1037\/e488172008-001"},{"key":"457_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Papavlasopoulou, S., Sharma, K., Giannakos, M.N.: How do you feel about learning to code? Investigating the effect of children\u2019s attitudes towards coding using eye-tracking, Int. J. Child-Comput. Interact. 17, 50\u201360, Sep. (2018). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijcci.2018.01.004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcci.2018.01.004"},{"key":"457_CR32","unstructured":"EMOTIV, EPOC\u2009+\u200914-Channel Wireless, E.E.G., Headset, E.M.O.T.I.V., Accessed: Mar. 05, 2020. [Online]. Available: https:\/\/www.emotiv.com\/epoc\/"},{"key":"457_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Eivazi, S., Bednarik, R., Tukiainen, M., von Fraunberg, M., Leinonen, V., J\u00e4\u00e4skel\u00e4inen, J.E.: Gaze behaviour of expert and novice microneurosurgeons differs during observations of tumor removal recordings, in Proceedings of the Symposium on Eye Tracking Research and Applications, Santa Barbara California: ACM, Mar. 377\u2013380. (2012). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2168556.2168641","DOI":"10.1145\/2168556.2168641"},{"key":"457_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Tien, G., Atkins, M.S., Zheng, B., Swindells, C.: Measuring situation awareness of surgeons in laparoscopic training, in Proceedings of the Symposium on Eye-Tracking Research & Applications - ETRA \u201910, Austin, Texas: ACM Press, 2010, 149. (2010). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/1743666.1743703","DOI":"10.1145\/1743666.1743703"},{"key":"457_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gu\u00e9h\u00e9neuc, Y.-G.: TAUPE: towards understanding program comprehension, in Proceedings of the conference of the Center for Advanced Studies on Collaborative research - CASCON \u201906, Toronto, Ontario, Canada: ACM Press, 2006, 1. (2006). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/1188966.1188968","DOI":"10.1145\/1188966.1188968"},{"key":"457_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Samuel, S., Borowsky, A., Zilberstein, S., Fisher, D.: Minimum time to Situation awareness in scenarios involving transfer of control from an automated driving suite. Transp. Res. Rec, 2602, 1, Art. 1, (2016).","DOI":"10.3141\/2602-14"},{"key":"457_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hooft, H., van Huysduynen, J., Terken, Eggen, B.: The relation between self-reported driving style and driving behaviour. A simulator study. Transp. Res. Part. F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 56, 245\u2013255 (Jul. 2018). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.trf.2018.04.017","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2018.04.017"},{"key":"457_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Petermeijer, S., Bazilinskyy, P., Bengler, K., de Winter, J.: Take-over again: Investigating multimodal and directional TORs to get the driver back into the loop. Appl. Ergon. 62, 204\u2013215 (Jul. 2017). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.apergo.2017.02.023","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2017.02.023"},{"key":"457_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Huizinga, C.R., et al.: Jul., Evaluation of simulated driving in comparison to laboratory-based tests to assess the pharmacodynamics of alprazolam and alcohol, J. Psychopharmacol. (Oxf.), 33(7), 791\u2013800, (2019). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0269881119836198","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881119836198"},{"key":"457_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Busjahn, T., Schulte, C., Busjahn, A.: Analysis of code reading to gain more insight in program comprehension, in Proceedings of the 11th Koli Calling International Conference on Computing Education Research, Koli Finland: ACM, Nov. 1\u20139. (2011). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2094131.2094133","DOI":"10.1145\/2094131.2094133"},{"key":"457_CR41","unstructured":"Harrison, T.: The Emotiv mind: Investigating the accuracy of the Emotiv EPOC in identifying emotions and its use in an Intelligent Tutoring System, p. 59, (2013). http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.26021\/3223"},{"key":"457_CR42","unstructured":"Pituch, K.A., Stevens, J.: Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences: analyses with SAS and IBM\u2019s SPSS, 6th edition. New York: Routledge\/Taylor & Francis Group, (2016)"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Intelligent Transportation Systems Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s13177-024-00457-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s13177-024-00457-6\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s13177-024-00457-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,15]],"date-time":"2025-03-15T16:23:02Z","timestamp":1742055782000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s13177-024-00457-6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,6]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}},"alternative-id":["457"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13177-024-00457-6","relation":{},"ISSN":["1348-8503","1868-8659"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"1348-8503"},{"type":"electronic","value":"1868-8659"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"28 December 2023","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"24 November 2024","order":2,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"8 December 2024","order":3,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"6 January 2025","order":4,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Authors declare that there are no financial or non-financial interests that are directly or indirectly related to the work submitted for publication. The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. This study complied with international, national, and institutional standards on research involving human participants and informed consent.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}]}}