{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T16:06:56Z","timestamp":1780675616499,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,19]],"date-time":"2025-05-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747612800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,19]],"date-time":"2025-05-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747612800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003051","name":"New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JPNP23013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPNP23013"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003051","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003051","name":"New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JPNP23013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPNP23013"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003051","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003051","name":"New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JPNP23013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPNP23013"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003051","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Cryptogr Eng"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>Laser fault injection (LFI) refers to a serious attack that modifies programs and data in embedded systems by introducing specific errors into a device in operation. As a countermeasure, in addition to duplication and optical sensors, the detection of LFIs using a sensor composed of digital circuits has recently been proposed. However, the research on the physical layout of these sensors is limited. In this work, we profile the laser irradiation position and its effect on the surrounding circuits by laser-scanning experiments on field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). Studies have shown that digital sensors with conventional designs have low-sensitivity areas with regard to LFIs. To improve LFI detection in FPGAs, we propose a design method for digital sensors and apply it to a ring oscillator (RO)-based digital sensor and a time-to-digital converter-based sensor. Experimental results show that the RO-based sensor based on the proposed method increased the area detecting LFI to about twice that of the conventional method, and detect 99.8% of the effective faults at the target register under protection. Furthermore, we extend the application of the RO-based sensor based on the proposed method to the protection of cryptographic circuits. The results of the laser-scanning experiment show that the proposed sensor detected 98.3% of the LFIs that caused effective faults in the cryptographic circuit.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s13389-025-00378-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,19]],"date-time":"2025-05-19T09:31:24Z","timestamp":1747647084000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Design methodology of digital sensors for detecting laser fault injection attacks in FPGAs"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Shungo","family":"Hayashi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Junichi","family":"Sakamoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tsutomu","family":"Matsumoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"378_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Fan., Lou, Xiaoxuan., Zhao, Xinjie., Bhasin, Shivam., He, Wei., Ding, Ruyi., Qureshi, Samiya., Ren, Kui.: Persistent fault analysis on block ciphers. IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems, pages 150\u2013172, 2018","DOI":"10.46586\/tches.v2018.i3.150-172"},{"key":"378_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clavier, Christophe.: Secret external encodings do not prevent transient fault analysis. In Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems-CHES 2007: 9th International Workshop, Vienna, Austria, September 10-13, 2007. Proceedings 9, pages 181\u2013194. Springer, 2007","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-74735-2_13"},{"key":"378_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dobraunig, Christoph., Eichlseder, Maria., Korak, Thomas., Mangard, Stefan., Mendel, Florian., Primas, Robert.: Sifa: exploiting ineffective fault inductions on symmetric cryptography. IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems, pages 547\u2013572, 2018","DOI":"10.46586\/tches.v2018.i3.547-572"},{"key":"378_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Breier, Jakub., Jap, Dirmanto., Chen, Chien-Ning.: Laser profiling for the back-side fault attacks: with a practical laser skip instruction attack on aes. In Proceedings of the 1st ACM Workshop on Cyber-Physical System Security, pages 99\u2013103, 2015","DOI":"10.1145\/2732198.2732206"},{"key":"378_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Colombier, Brice., Menu, Alexandre., Dutertre, Jean-Max., Mo\u00ebllic, Pierre-Alain., Rigaud, Jean-Baptiste., Danger, Jean-Luc.: Laser-induced single-bit faults in flash memory: Instructions corruption on a 32-bit microcontroller. In 2019 IEEE International Symposium on Hardware Oriented Security and Trust (HOST), pages 1\u201310. IEEE, 2019","DOI":"10.1109\/HST.2019.8741030"},{"key":"378_CR6","unstructured":"Pouget, V., Douin, A., Lewis, D., Fouillat, P., Foucard, G., Peronnard, P., Maingot, V., Ferron, JB., Anghel, Lorena., Leveugle, R\u00e9gis., et\u00a0al.: Tools and methodology development for pulsed laser fault injection in sram-based fpgas. In 8th Latin-American Test Workshop (LATW). Citeseer, 2007"},{"issue":"2","key":"378_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1007\/s00145-010-9083-9","volume":"24","author":"Gaetan Canivet","year":"2011","unstructured":"Canivet, Gaetan, Maistri, Paolo, Leveugle, R\u00e9gis., Cl\u00e9di\u00e8re, Jessy, Valette, Florent, Renaudin, Marc: Glitch and laser fault attacks onto a secure aes implementation on a sram-based fpga. Journal of cryptology 24(2), 247\u2013268 (2011)","journal-title":"Journal of cryptology"},{"key":"378_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vasselle, Aur\u00e9lien., Thiebeauld, Hugues., Maouhoub, Quentin., Morisset, Adele., Ermeneux, S\u00e9bastien.: Laser-induced fault injection on smartphone bypassing the secure boot. In 2017 Workshop on Fault Diagnosis and Tolerance in Cryptography (FDTC), pages 41\u201348. IEEE, 2017","DOI":"10.1109\/FDTC.2017.18"},{"key":"378_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Viera, Raphael A\u00a0Camponogara., Maurine, Philippe., Dutertre, Jean-Max., Bastos, Rodrigo\u00a0Possamai.: Simulation and experimental demonstration of the importance of ir-drops during laser fault injection. 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IEEE, 2022","DOI":"10.1109\/HOST54066.2022.9840318"},{"key":"378_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Muttaki, Md\u00a0Rafid., Zhang, Tao., Tehranipoor, Mark., Farahmandi, Farimah.: Ftc: A universal sensor for fault injection attack detection. In 2022 IEEE International Symposium on Hardware Oriented Security and Trust (HOST), pages 117\u2013120. IEEE, 2022","DOI":"10.1109\/HOST54066.2022.9840177"},{"key":"378_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khairallah, Mustafa., Sadhukhan, Rajat., Samanta, Radhamanjari., Breier, Jakub., Bhasin, Shivam., Chakraborty, Rajat\u00a0Subhra., Chattopadhyay, Anupam., Mukhopadhyay, Debdeep.: Dfarpa: Differential fault attack resistant physical design automation. In 2018 Design, Automation & Test in Europe Conference & Exhibition (DATE), pages 1171\u20131174. 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