{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T19:28:32Z","timestamp":1772652512202,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,5,21]],"date-time":"2014-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1400630400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/www.springer.com\/tdm"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int J Artif Intell Educ"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2014,9]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-014-0016-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,5,20]],"date-time":"2014-05-20T12:59:22Z","timestamp":1400590762000},"page":"216-250","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Reinforcing Math Knowledge by Immersing Students in a Simulated Learning-By-Teaching Experience"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Douglas B.","family":"Lenat","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Paula J.","family":"Durlach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"78","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"16_CR1","first-page":"101","volume":"16","author":"V Aleven","year":"2006","unstructured":"Aleven, V., McLaren, B., Roll, I., & Koedinger, K. (2006). Toward meta-cognitive tutoring: a model of help-seeking with a cognitive tutor. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 16, 101\u2013130.","journal-title":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education"},{"key":"16_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327809jls0402_2","volume":"4","author":"JR Anderson","year":"1995","unstructured":"Anderson, J. R., Corbett, A. T., Koedinger, K. R., & Pelletier, R. (1995). Cognitive tutors: lessons learned. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 4, 167\u2013207.","journal-title":"The Journal of the Learning Sciences"},{"key":"16_CR3","volume-title":"Game-based tutoring technologies final report","author":"ATLT (Advanced Training and Learning Technologies)","year":"2012","unstructured":"ATLT (Advanced Training and Learning Technologies). (2012). Game-based tutoring technologies final report. Virginia Beach: ATLT."},{"key":"16_CR4","first-page":"12","volume":"98","author":"D Berliner","year":"1989","unstructured":"Berliner, D. (1989). Being the teacher helps students learn. Instructor, 98, 12\u201313.","journal-title":"Instructor"},{"key":"16_CR5","first-page":"71","volume-title":"Smart machines in education","author":"G Biswas","year":"2001","unstructured":"Biswas, G., Schwartz, D. L., Bransford, J. D., & The Teachable Agents Group at Vanderbilt. (2001). Technology support for complex problem solving: From SAD environments to AI. In K. Forbus & P. Feltovich (Eds.), Smart machines in education (pp. 71\u201398). Menlo Park: AAAI\/MIT Press."},{"key":"16_CR6","unstructured":"Blair, K., Schwartz, D., Biswas, G., & Leelawong, K. (2006). Pedagogical agents for learning by teaching: teachable agents. Journal of Educational Technology and Society, Special Issue on Pedagogical Agents."},{"issue":"2","key":"16_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.17583\/redimat.2013.535","volume":"2","author":"BM Brizuela","year":"2013","unstructured":"Brizuela, B. M., Martinez, M. V., & Cayton-Hodges, G. A. (2013). The impact of early algebra: results from a longitudinal intervention. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 2(2), 209\u2013241.","journal-title":"Journal for Research in Mathematics Education"},{"key":"16_CR8","first-page":"21","volume-title":"Artificial intelligence in education","author":"S Brophy","year":"1999","unstructured":"Brophy, S., Biswas, G., Katzlberger, T., Bransford, J., & Schwartz, D. (1999). Teachable agents: Combining insights from learning theory and computer science. In S. P. Lajoie & M. Vivet (Eds.), Artificial intelligence in education (pp. 21\u201328). Amsterdam: Ios Press."},{"key":"16_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog0404_3","volume":"4","author":"JS Brown","year":"1980","unstructured":"Brown, J. S., & VanLehn, K. (1980). Repair theory: a generative theory of bugs in procedural skills. Cognitive Science, 4, 379\u2013426.","journal-title":"Cognitive Science"},{"key":"16_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1007\/s10956-009-9180-4","volume":"18","author":"CC Chase","year":"2009","unstructured":"Chase, C. C., Chin, D. B., Oppezzo, M. A., & Schwartz, D. L. (2009). Teachable agents and the prot\u00e9g\u00e9 effect: increasing the effort towards learning. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 18, 334\u2013352.","journal-title":"Journal of Science Education and Technology"},{"key":"16_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-010-9154-5","volume":"58","author":"DB Chin","year":"2010","unstructured":"Chin, D. B., Dohmen, I. M., Cheng, B. H., Oppezzo, M. A., Chase, C. C., & Schwartz, D. L. (2010). Preparing students for future learning with teachable agents. Educational Technology Research and Development, 58, 649\u2013670.","journal-title":"Educational Technology Research and Development"},{"key":"16_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.3102\/00028312019002237","volume":"19","author":"PA Cohen","year":"1982","unstructured":"Cohen, P. A., Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C. L. C. (1982). Education outcomes of tutoring: a meta-analysis of findings. American Educational Research Journal, 19, 237\u2013248.","journal-title":"American Educational Research Journal"},{"key":"16_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ebbinghaus, H. (1913). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology (trans: Ruger, H. & Bussenius, C.). New York, NY: Teachers College, Columbia University. (Original work published in 1885).","DOI":"10.1037\/10011-000"},{"key":"16_CR14","volume-title":"Programming-Languages as a conceptual framework for teaching mathematics, Final Report on NSF-C project 558","author":"W Feurzeig","year":"1969","unstructured":"Feurzeig, W., Papert, S., Bloom, M., Grant, R., & Solomon, C. (1969). Programming-Languages as a conceptual framework for teaching mathematics, Final Report on NSF-C project 558. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation, Office of Computing Activities."},{"key":"16_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.21236\/ADA542215","volume-title":"DARPA education dominance program: April 2010 and November 2010 digital tutor assessments, IDA NS D-4260, Log: H 11-000117","author":"JD Fletcher","year":"2011","unstructured":"Fletcher, J. D. (2011). DARPA education dominance program: April 2010 and November 2010 digital tutor assessments, IDA NS D-4260, Log: H 11-000117. Alexandria: Institute for Defense Analyses."},{"key":"16_CR16","first-page":"47","volume":"1","author":"K Forbus","year":"2012","unstructured":"Forbus, K. (2012). How minds will be built. Advances in Cognitive Systems, 1, 47\u201358.","journal-title":"Advances in Cognitive Systems"},{"key":"16_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.2466\/pr0.1960.6.1.11","volume":"6","author":"E Fry","year":"1960","unstructured":"Fry, E. (1960). Teaching machine dichotomy: Skinner vs. Pressey. Psychological Reports, 6, 11\u201314.","journal-title":"Psychological Reports"},{"key":"16_CR18","volume-title":"Lernen durch Lehren","author":"R Graef","year":"1994","unstructured":"Graef, R., & Preller, R. D. (1994). Lernen durch Lehren. Rimbach, Germany: Verlag im Wald, Rimbach."},{"key":"16_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326985ep4004_4","volume":"40","author":"AC Graesser","year":"2005","unstructured":"Graesser, A. C., McNamara, D. S., & VanLehn, K. (2005). Scaffolding deep comprehension strategies through Point and Query, AutoTutor, and iSTART. Educational Psychologist, 40, 225\u2013234.","journal-title":"Educational Psychologist"},{"key":"16_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-21869-9_16","volume-title":"Artificial intelligence in education, LNAI 6738","author":"A Gulz","year":"2011","unstructured":"Gulz, A., Haake, M., & Sivervarg, A. (2011). Extending a teachable agent with social conversation modules \u2013 Effects on student experience and learning. In G. Biswas, S. Bull, J. Kay, & A. Mitrovic (Eds.), Artificial intelligence in education, LNAI 6738 (pp. 106\u2013114). Berlin: Springer."},{"key":"16_CR21","volume-title":"Teachable agent for Elevdata\u2019s Matematikhuset","author":"L Husain","year":"2010","unstructured":"Husain, L., Meletli, N., Bostr\u00f6m, M., Axelsson, K., & Samvik, R. (2010). Teachable agent for Elevdata\u2019s Matematikhuset. Sweden: Lund University."},{"key":"16_CR22","unstructured":"Katzlberger, T. (2005). Learning by teaching agents (Doctoral thesis). Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University"},{"key":"16_CR23","volume-title":"Proceedings from the European conference on games based learning: Measuring user experience in tablet based educational game","author":"K Kiili","year":"2012","unstructured":"Kiili, K., Koivisto, A., Finn, E., & Ketamo, H. (2012). Proceedings from the European conference on games based learning: Measuring user experience in tablet based educational game. Sonning Common: Academic Conferences and Publishing International."},{"key":"16_CR24","volume-title":"The Lancasterian system of education","author":"J Lancaster","year":"1821","unstructured":"Lancaster, J. (1821). The Lancasterian system of education. Baltimore: Lancaster School."},{"key":"16_CR25","first-page":"181","volume":"18","author":"K Leelawong","year":"2008","unstructured":"Leelawong, K., & Biswas, G. (2008). Designing learning-by-teaching agents: the Betty\u2019s brain system. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 18, 181\u2013208.","journal-title":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education"},{"key":"16_CR26","volume-title":"Building large knowledge-based systems: Representations and inference in the Cyc project","author":"D Lenat","year":"1990","unstructured":"Lenat, D., & Guha, R. V. (1990). Building large knowledge-based systems: Representations and inference in the Cyc project. Boston: Addison-Wesley."},{"issue":"4","key":"16_CR27","first-page":"65","volume":"6","author":"D Lenat","year":"1985","unstructured":"Lenat, D., Prakash, M., & Shepherd, M. (1985). CYC: using common sense knowledge to overcome brittleness and knowledge acquisition bottlenecks. AI Magazine, 6(4), 65\u201385.","journal-title":"AI Magazine"},{"key":"16_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lenat, D., Witbrock, M., Baxter, D., Blackstone, E., Deaton, C., Schneider, D., Scott, J., & Shepard, B. (2010). Harnessing Cyc to answer clinical researchers\u2019 ad hoc queries. AI Magazine, 31(3).","DOI":"10.1609\/aimag.v31i3.2299"},{"key":"16_CR29","volume-title":"A machine learning approach for automatic student model discovery","author":"N Li","year":"2011","unstructured":"Li, N., Cohen, W., Koedinger, K. R., & Matsuda, N. (2011). Proceedings from the Fourth International Conference on Educational Data Mining. In M. Pechenizkiy, T. Calders, C. Conati, S. Ventura, C. Romero, & J. Stamper (Eds.), A machine learning approach for automatic student model discovery. Eindhoven: TU\/e printservice."},{"key":"16_CR30","unstructured":"Matsuda, N., Cohen, W. W., Koedinger, K. R., Stylianides, G., Keiser, V., & Raizada, R. (2010). Proceedings from the International Workshop on Adaptation and Personalization in E- B\/Learning using Pedagogic Conversational Agents (APLeC). In D. Perez-Marin, I. Pascual-Nieto, and S. Ball (Eds.), Tuning cognitive tutors into a platform for learning-by-teaching with SimStudent technology. Retrieved from http:\/\/ceur-ws.org\/Vol-587\/paper4.pdf ."},{"key":"16_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-30950-2_14","volume-title":"Motivational factors for learning-by-teaching: The effect of a competitive game show in a virtual peer-learning environment","author":"N Matsuda","year":"2012","unstructured":"Matsuda, N., Yarzebinski, E., Keiser, V., Raizada, R., Stylianides, G., Cohen, W. W., Stylianides, G., & Koedinger, K. R. (2012a). Proceedings from international conference on intelligent tutoring systems. In S. Cerri & W. Clancey (Eds.), Motivational factors for learning-by-teaching: The effect of a competitive game show in a virtual peer-learning environment. Berlin: Springer."},{"key":"16_CR32","volume-title":"Shallow learning as a pathway for successful learning both for tutors and tutees","author":"N Matsuda","year":"2012","unstructured":"Matsuda, N., Yarzebinski, E., Keiser, V., Raizada, R., William, W. C., Stylianides, G., & Koedinger, K. R. (2012b). Proceedings from the annual conference of the cognitive science society. In N. Miyake, D. Peebles, & R. P. Cooper (Eds.), Shallow learning as a pathway for successful learning both for tutors and tutees. Austin: Cognitive Science Society."},{"issue":"1","key":"16_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/S0004-3702(99)00076-4","volume":"115","author":"E Melis","year":"1999","unstructured":"Melis, E., & Siekmann, J. (1999). Knowledge-based proof planning. Artificial Intelligence Journal, 115(1), 65\u2013105.","journal-title":"Artificial Intelligence Journal"},{"key":"16_CR34","first-page":"307","volume-title":"2nd Scandinavian conference on artificial intelligence 89","author":"D Michie","year":"1989","unstructured":"Michie, D., Paterson, A., & Hayes-Michie, J. (1989). Learning-by-teaching. In H. Jaakkola & S. Linnainmaa (Eds.), 2nd Scandinavian conference on artificial intelligence 89 (pp. 307\u2013331). Amsterdam: Ios Press."},{"key":"16_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4471-2161-9_10","volume-title":"Serious games and edutainment applications","author":"K Millis","year":"2011","unstructured":"Millis, K., Forsyth, C., Butler, H., Wallace, P., Graesser, A. C., & Halpern, D. (2011). Operation ARIES! A serious game for teaching scientific inquiry. In M. Ma, A. Oikonomou, & J. Lakhmi (Eds.), Serious games and edutainment applications (pp. 169\u2013196). London: Springer."},{"key":"16_CR36","unstructured":"Nichols, D. (1994). Proceedings of the East-West International Conference on Computer Technologies in Education (EW-ED\u201994), volume 1. In P. Brusilovsky, S. Dikareva, J. Greer, & V. Petrushin (Eds.), Issues in designing learning-by-teaching systems (pp. 176\u2013181). Crimea, Ukranine."},{"key":"16_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-012-9246-5","volume":"60","author":"L Pareto","year":"2012","unstructured":"Pareto, L., Haake, M., Lindstr\u00f6m, P., Sj\u00f6d\u00e9n, B., & Gulz, A. (2012). A teachable-agent-based game affording collaboration and competition: evaluating math comprehension and motivation. Educational Technology Research and Development, 60, 723\u2013751.","journal-title":"Educational Technology Research and Development"},{"key":"16_CR38","unstructured":"President\u2019s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology. (2010). Prepare and inspire: K-12 education in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) for America\u2019s future. Washington, DC. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.whitehouse.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/microsites\/ostp\/pcast-stemed-report.pdf ."},{"key":"16_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.3102\/0034654307309920","volume":"77","author":"RD Roscoe","year":"2007","unstructured":"Roscoe, R. D., & Chi, M. T. H. (2007). Understanding tutor learning: knowledge-building and knowledge-telling in peer tutors\u2019 explanations and questions. Review of Educational Research, 77, 534\u2013574.","journal-title":"Review of Educational Research"},{"key":"16_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2012.11.008","volume":"62","author":"RD Roscoe","year":"2013","unstructured":"Roscoe, R. D., Segedy, J., Sulcer, B., Jeong, H., & Biswas, G. (2013). Shallow strategy development in a teachable agent environment designed to support self-regulated learning. Computers and Education, 62, 286\u2013297.","journal-title":"Computers and Education"},{"key":"16_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-012-9275-0","volume":"61","author":"JR Segedy","year":"2013","unstructured":"Segedy, J. R., Kinnebrew, J. S., & Biswas, G. (2013). The effect of contextualized conversational feedback in a complex open-ended learning environment. Educational Technology Research and Development, 61, 71\u201389.","journal-title":"Educational Technology Research and Development"},{"key":"16_CR42","volume-title":"Syntax, semantics, and pragmatics of contexts, AAAI technical report FS-95-02","author":"J Sowa","year":"1995","unstructured":"Sowa, J. (1995). Syntax, semantics, and pragmatics of contexts, AAAI technical report FS-95-02. Vestal: American Association of Artificial Intelligence."},{"key":"16_CR43","unstructured":"Stern, N. (2011). Teach some, learn some: The benefits of tutoring. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.brassmagazine.com\/article\/teach-some-learn-some-benefits-tutoring ."},{"key":"16_CR44","volume-title":"The Routledge dictionary of latin quotations: The Illiterati\u2019s guide to Latin maxims, mottoes, proverbs, and sayings","author":"JR Stone","year":"2004","unstructured":"Stone, J. R. (2004). The Routledge dictionary of latin quotations: The Illiterati\u2019s guide to Latin maxims, mottoes, proverbs, and sayings. New York: Routledge."},{"issue":"3","key":"16_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1080\/00309230802041526","volume":"44","author":"J Tschurenev","year":"2008","unstructured":"Tschurenev, J. (2008). Diffusing useful knowledge: the monitorial system of education in Madras, London and Bengal, 1789-1840. Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education, 44(3), 245\u2013264.","journal-title":"Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education"},{"key":"16_CR46","first-page":"67","volume":"14","author":"J Uresti","year":"2004","unstructured":"Uresti, J., & du Boulay, B. (2004). Expertise, motivation, and teaching in learning companion systems. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 14, 67\u2013106.","journal-title":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education"},{"key":"16_CR47","first-page":"227","volume":"16","author":"K VanLehn","year":"2006","unstructured":"VanLehn, K. (2006). The behavior of tutoring systems. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Eductaion, 16, 227\u2013265.","journal-title":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Eductaion"},{"key":"16_CR48","volume-title":"Fading and deepening: The next steps for Andes and other model-tracing tutors","author":"K VanLehn","year":"2000","unstructured":"VanLehn, K., Freedman, R., Jordan, P., Murray, C., Osan, R., Ringenberg, M., Rose, C., Schulze, K., Shelby, R., Treacy, D., Weinstein, A., & Wintersgill, M. (2000). Proceedings from intelligent tutoring systems: 5th international conference: Vol. 1839. Lecture notes in computer science. In G. Gauthier, C. Frasson, & K. VanLehn (Eds.), Fading and deepening: The next steps for Andes and other model-tracing tutors. Berlin: Springer."},{"key":"16_CR49","volume-title":"Do learning-by-teaching environments with metacognitive support help students develop better learning behaviors?","author":"J Wagster","year":"2007","unstructured":"Wagster, J., Tan, J., Wu, Y., Biswas, G., & Schwartz, D. L. (2007). Proceeding from the 29th meeting of the Cognitive Science Society. In D. S. McNamara & J. G. Trafton (Eds.), Do learning-by-teaching environments with metacognitive support help students develop better learning behaviors? Nashville: Cognitive Science Society."},{"key":"16_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-30950-2_28","volume-title":"Intelligent tutoring systems, 2012","author":"E Walker","year":"2012","unstructured":"Walker, E., Rummel, N., Walker, S., & Koedinger, K. R. (2012). Noticing relevant feedback improves learning in an intelligent tutoring system for peer tutoring. In S. A. Cerri, W. J. Clancey, G. Papdourakis, & K. Panourgia (Eds.), Intelligent tutoring systems, 2012 (pp. 222\u2013232). Berlin: Springer."},{"key":"16_CR51","unstructured":"Winston, P. H. (1970). Learning structural descriptions from examples. (doctoral thesis). Cambridge, MA: MIT."},{"key":"16_CR52","first-page":"62","volume":"15","author":"G Zhao","year":"2012","unstructured":"Zhao, G., Ailiya, & Shen, Z. (2012). Learning-by-teaching: designing teachable agents with intrinsic motivation. Educational Technology and Society, 15, 62\u201374.","journal-title":"Educational Technology and Society"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40593-014-0016-x.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s40593-014-0016-x\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40593-014-0016-x","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T18:11:44Z","timestamp":1772647904000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s40593-014-0016-x"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,5,21]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2014,9]]}},"alternative-id":["16"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40593-014-0016-x","relation":{},"ISSN":["1560-4292","1560-4306"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1560-4292","type":"print"},{"value":"1560-4306","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,5,21]]}}}